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Developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
Embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
Fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
Teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and look away sooner.
Maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
Object permanence
-the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
Preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
Conservation
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Egocentrism
the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
Theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
Concrete operational stage
the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Formal operational stage
the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Scaffold
a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
Autism spectrum disorder
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
Stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
Attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation
Critical period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
Strange situation
a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed
Secure attachment
demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return
Insecure attachment
demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness
Temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Basic trust
a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question "Who am I?"
Sex
the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
Gender
the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
Role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Gender role
a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females
Gender identity
our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two
Social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Androgyny
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
Transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex
Adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Identity
our sense of self; the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
Intimacy
the ability to form close, loving relationships a primary developmental task in young adulthood
Emerging adulthood
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both males and females
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome typically found only in males
Primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitals) that make sexual reproduction possible
Secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
Spermarche
the first ejaculation
Menarche
the first menstrual period
Intersex
a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes
AIDs
a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
Sexual orientation
our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual orientation)
Menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce decline
Cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
Neurocognitive disorders
acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia
Alzheimer's disease
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
Testosterone
The main androgen (male hormone) that promotes male sex organ development
Social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Relational aggression
An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing
Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist known for his work in childhood cognitive development
Lev Vygotsky
Russian psychologist whose zone of proximal development theory emphasized the role of the social environment in childhood cognitive development
Harry Harlow
American psychologist whose work with monkeys showed the importance of body contact, rather than nourishment, in developing attachment between child and caregiver
Konrad Lorenz
Austrian zoologist who explored attachment through imprinting in animals
Mary Ainsworth
Developmental psychologist who devised the strange situation experiment to observe types of attachment in infants
Erik Erikson
Developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory of psychosocial development
Diana Baumrind
Developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles
Carol Gilligan
American psychologist known for her research on female morality; she was critical of Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Lawrence Kohlberg
American psychologist known for his theory of moral development
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