AP Psychology Unit 1

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success

Natural Selection

Organisms with traits that are better suited for their environment and are more likely to survive and reproduce passing on traits to future generations

Nature

Inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive results —> your genes (what were born with)

Nurture

Environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual’s psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive process —> environment (what we learn)

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to assess the relative influence of genetic and environment on traits and behaviors

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors

Family Studies

Analyzes similarities and difference among family members, including parents and siblings to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit

Heredity

The transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring

Genetic Predisposition

The inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents (anxiety, depression, etc)

Eugenics

The belief in improving the genetic quality of human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for high-level cognitive functions, including thinking, perceiving, and decision making

Lobes of the Brain

The lobes of the brain refer to the 4 main regions or sections into which the cerebral cortex is divided (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital)

Association Areas

Parts of the brain that take info from all over the place —> see, hear, smell, and touch —> put together to help us understand the world around us

Frontal Lobe

Located at the front of the brain and are involved in higher-level cognitive functions like problem solving, planning, personality

Prefrontal Cortex

Region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-higher level cognitive functions and executive function (a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time efficiently)

Motor Cortex

Region of the brain located in the frontal love, responsible for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements of the body like walking and picking up things (the left part of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa)

Parietal Lobe

Located at the top of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing sensory info like touch, temperature, pain, and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

Region of the brain located in the parietal love, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints —> allows us to feel when someone pokes your shoulder and to perceive and respond to sensory stimuli

Occipital Lobe

Located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual info received from the eyes —> helps us perceive shapes, colors, and motion

Temporal Lobe

Located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing auditory info, language comprehension, and memory formation (helps us hear/interprets sound signals from the ear)

Corpus Callosum

Thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain —> fallicitates communication and information sharing between the 2 hemispheres

Brainstem

Responsible for basic life sustaining functions like breathing, heart rate, and the sleep-wake cycle —> pathway for neural signals

Medulla

Vital structure located at the base of the brainstem, regulating essential autonomic functions like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure (involuntary functions)

Reticular Activating System

A network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating carousel, attention, and consciousness —> helps maintain wakefulness and alertness

Cerebellum

Located at the back of the brain below the occipital lobe, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture

Limbic System

The limbic system located beneath the cerebral cortex is a set of brain structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation (basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus, amygdala)

Reward System

Network of brain structures in limbic system that processes pleasure able experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them (you crave hanging out with your friends because of how happy it makes you)

Thalamus

Relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory info —> processes a touch on the shoulder and sends it to the parietal lobe

Hypothalamus

Small structure below the thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions —> a control center helping to maintain homeostasis with hormones —> regulates hunger, thirst, body temp, and sleep wake cycle

Pititary Gland

Small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, and it controls regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body —> actually releases the hormones

Hippocampus 

Curved structure located in temporal lobe, responsible for forming and consolidating new memories

Amygdala

Small almond shaped structure deep in the brain (temporal lobe), involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression

The Nervous System

The body’s communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells —> sends signals throughout the body

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord. IT serves as the command center of the body, responsible for processing info, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily function (center of the body)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord —> communication network transmitting sensory info from body to CNS

Autonomic Nervous System

Division of the PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions —> lungs, pupils, heartbeat, digestion, intestines (moves and controls) —> operates without conscious control

Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for activating the body’s “fight or flight” response in times of stress or danger —> increases heart rate, pupils get bigger to focus more, slows digestion

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for relaxation or restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger —> slows heart rate, constricts airways, enhances digestion

Somatic Nervous System

Division of the PNS responsible for controlling voluntary movement and relaying sensory info from the body to the CNS —> like body’s remote control (you control what movements to make like you control what channel the TV goes to)

Neurons

Specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body —> consists of the soma, dendrites, and axon

Glial Cells

The “support cells” of the nervous system, providing structural support, insulation, and nourishment for neurons —> hold neurons together —> the glue of the nervous system

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the CNS to muscles initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary movements —> starts in brain and gets sent out

Sensory Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory info from sensory receptors to the CNS —> starts outside and goes in

Interneurons

Nerve cells that serve as connections within CNS, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neuron —> when a doctor taps your knee, sensory neurons transmit the signal to the spinal cord, interneurons then connect with motor neurons, causing your leg to extend involuntarily 

Reflex Arc

Neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli w/o conscious thought —> you pull away from hot stove before you have to think because it hurts

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signal —> messages being sent out through other neurons

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential —> minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response 

Action Potential

Brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neurons —> the actual message

All or Nothing Principle

States that once a neuron reaches its threshold, it will fire an action potential at full strength

Depolarization

Phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less neuron compared to the outside due to influx of positively charged ions through ion channels in the cell membrane—> a dam is holding back water is resting potential and depolarization occurs when the dam opens and water flows out

Refractory Period

Brief period following an action potential when a neuron is unable to generate another action potential like when you flush a toilet you have to wait to flush again until the tank is refilled

Resting Potential

The stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals —> like potential energy or how a battery holds stored energy when not in use

Reuptake

Process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the pre-synapse neuron from which they were originally released

Multiple Sclerosis “MS”

Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the CNS —> the immune system accidentally attacks the protective myelin sheath, causing inflammation and damage

Myasthenia Gravis

Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles —> the immune system produces antibodies that block or destroy the receptors for acetylcholine so the muscles are waiting for a signal that isn’t going to come

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, allowing for communication within the nervous system

Excitatoy Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occuring in post-synpatic response —> makes the neurons want to fire

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemical released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occuring in post-synaptic response —> make them not want to fire

Glutamate

Brain’s most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter essential for cognitive functions such as learning and memory

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, which helps calm the nervous system and promotes relaxation

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and pleasure, and plays a role in motor control and cognitive functions

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep, contributing to feelings of well-being and happiness

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters produced by the brain that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers, providing a sense of well-being

Substance p

A nerotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals to the brain, playing a role in the body’s response to pain and inflammation

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation, learning, memory, and fallicitates communication between nerve cells and muscles

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the blood stream to target cells or organs, where they regulate various physiological processes and behaviors

Ghrelin

Hormone produced primarily by the stomach and small intestines that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger

Leptin

Produced by fat cells that regulate energy balance and appetite. It suppresses appetite and increases energy expenditure 

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms in the body —> crucial role in maintaining body’s internal clock and ensuring restful sleep

Oxytocin

Hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in social bonding —> love hormone —> involved in forming emotional connections, trust, and intimacy

Adrenaline

Hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in body’s stress response, often referred to as the “fight or flight” response

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in the “flight or flight” response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and enhancing focus and alertness

Plasticity

Brains ability to reorganize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes 

Split Brain Research

Studies individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure called corpus callostomy, disconnects the 2 hemispheres of the brain (like having 2 brains)

Contralateral Hemisphereic Organization

The phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

Hemispheric Specialization

Explored through split brain research —> concept that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions and abilities —> Language processing in the brain is primarily located in the left hemisphere

Linguistic Processing

Complex cognitive process involved in understanding and producing language  —> when you hear someone speaking and are able to immediately comprehend the meaning of their words

Broca’s Area

In left hemisphere (frontal lobe) that is responsible for speech producing and language processing —> plays a crucial role in formation of grammatically correct sentences 

Broca’s Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to Broca’s Area in left hemisphere —> causes difficulty in producing fluent speech and forming grammatically correct sentences

Wernicke’s Area

Located in the left hemisphere (temporal lobe) involved in language comprehension and understand spoken and written language —> helps interpret the meaning of words and sentences allowing individuals to comprehend and process language

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Language disorder in Wernicke’s Area and it causes a person to be able to exhibit fluent speech but have difficulty understanding spoken and written language, as well as producing meaningful and coherent speech —> they may use nonsensical or inappropriate words and sentences, making communication challenging

Electroencephalogram “EEG”

Non-invasive neuro-imaging technique used to record electrical activity of the brain —> involves placing electrodes on the scalp to detect and measure the electrical signals produced by neurons in the brain —> used to diagnose and monitor neurological conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain injuries

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging “fMRI”

Neuro-imaging technique used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen levels  

Lesioning

Research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals —> achieved through methods such as surgical removal, chemical injection, or electrical stimulation

Consciousness

The state of being aware of and able to perceive one’s thoughts, feeling, sensations, and surroundings —> involved various levels from alert wakefulness to altered states such as sleep or meditation 

Circadian Rhythm

The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours —> influences patterns of alertness, hormone release, body temp, and other physiological processes

Jet Lag

A temporary disruption of the body’s circadian rhythm due to rapid travel across multiple time zones

Shift Work

Employment schedules that require working outside of typical daytime hours, often disrupting the body’s natural circadian rhythm

NREM Stage 1

The first stage of non rapid eye movement sleep characterized by drifting in and out of sleep —> brain waves slow down, muscles relax, and individuals may experience sudden muscle contractions know as hypnic jerks

NREM Stage 2

2nd stage of non rapid eye movement sleep characterized by light sleep —> brain waves slow down and sleep spindles (short bursts of brain activity) and K-complexes (sudden sharp waveforms) appear 

NREM Stage 3

The deepest stage of non rapid eye movement sleep characterized by the presence of predominately delta waves —> the body and  rain replenish energy, repairs tissues, removes waste products, and promotes physical and mental well-being

REM Sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis —> increased brain activity occurs including dreaming and plays a role in memory consolidation and emotional processing —> its like your brain is awake but not conscious 

REM Rebound

The phenomenon where the body increases the time spent in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation —> occurs as a compensatory response to the lack of REM sleep, often resulting in more intense and frequent REM sleep episode

Activation-Synthesis (Dreams)

A theory proposing that dreams are the result of random neural activity in the brainstem during REM sleep —> its like the brain is firing off randomly and the dream is trying to make sense of those neurons

Consolidation Theory (Dreams)

A theory suggesting that dreams play a role in the memory consolidation and processing of memories —> brain organizes and integrates info acquired throughout the day, contributing to memory storage and learning 

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing restorative sleep, leading to daytime impairment —> people have feelings of fatigue, mood disturbances, and decreased cognitive functions

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden episodes of muscle weakness, sleep paralysis, and hallucinations during sleep onset or awakening —> falling asleep unexpectedly during the day

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep —> leads to disrupted sleep patterns, daytime fatigue, and other health problems

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder where individuals physically act out their dreams during REM sleep —> a middle aged person is experiencing REM Sleep BD and their partner notices them thrashing around violently in bed, like their acting our a vivid and intense dream —> don;t have sleep paralysis like their suppose to

Somnambulism 

A sleep disorder commonly known as sleepwalking, characterized by walking or performing other activities while still asleep —> occurs during NREM sleep typically