ib psych terms+history

what is teh scientific method

iis a systematic, step-by-step process for investigating questions and building reliable knowledge

what does the scientific method do?

it separates scientific psychology from philosophy, intuition, and common sense

is human intution abt behavior oftne right or wrong?

wrong

what are some examples of human intution about behavior being wrong

opposites attract, venting anger makes u feel better, we only use 10% fo our brain

why is opposites attract wrng

bcuz research shows that similarity predicts attraction

why is venting nager makes u feel better wrong

bcuz research shows that venting often increases aggression

why is w eonly use 10% of our brain wrong

bcuz brain imaging shows us that we use virtualy all of our brain

what is hindsight bias

basically it is “i knew it all along” basically it makes research findings seem obvious after u learn them

how does the scientific method guard against hindsight bias

bcuz it requires testable predictions b4 data is collected

what are the steps of the scientific method

identify a question/make an observation, conduct background research, formulate a hypothesis, design and cnduct the study, analyze the data, draw conclusion, and laslty report and replicate

Identify a Question / Make an Observation

• Notice something that needs explanation.

• Example: 'Students who use laptops in class seem to perform worse on exams.'

1. Conduct Background Research

• Review existing literature (journal articles, textbooks, meta-analyses).

• What do we already know? What gaps exist?

1. Formulate a Hypothesis

• A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

• Example: 'Students who take notes on laptops will score lower on a conceptual test than students who take notes by hand.'

1. Design and Conduct the Study

• Choose appropriate methods and collect data.

1. Analyze the Data

• Use statistical methods to evaluate results.

1. Draw Conclusions

• Do the data support or fail to support the hypothesis?

1. Report and Replicate

• Publish findings for peer review; other scientists attempt to replicate.

Which step of the scientific method comes immediately AFTER formulating a hypothesis?

designing and conducting the study

what is a hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

what r characteristics of a good hypothesis

• Specific: Clearly states the expected relationship (not vague).

• Testable: Can be investigated through observation or experiment.

• Falsifiable: It must be possible to obtain results that disprove it (Karl Popper's criterion).

• Based on existing knowledge: Derived from theory, prior research, or systematic observation.

null hypothesis

No relationship or difference exists

Alternative (H₁) hypothesis

A relationship or difference exists

directional hypothesis

Specifies the direction of the effec

non directional hypothesis

Predicts an effect without specifying direction

an example of a null hypothesis

'Caffeine has no effect on reaction time.'

example of alternative hypothesis

Caffeine affects reaction time.'

example of directional hypothesis

'Caffeine decreases reaction time.'

example of non directional hypothesis

'Caffeine affects reaction time (could be faster or slower).'

varibale smust be what

opertaionally defined

what does oeprtaionally defined mean

described in terms of how they are measured or manipulated.

what are some examples of operationalizaiotn of variables

• 'Anxiety' → Score on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

• 'Aggression' → Number of times a child hits a Bobo doll in 10 minutes

• 'Intelligence' → Score on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

• 'Sleep quality' → Score on the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)

what does operational deifnations make sure that happens

that different researchers can measure the same thing in the same way, making studies replicable.

why does operationaliation matter

Without it, a hypothesis like 'happy people are more successful' is untestable because 'happy' and 'successful' are undefined. With operationalization: 'People who score above 30 on the Subjective Happiness Scale earn higher annual incomes than those who score below 20.'

theory

A broad, well-supported explanation that organizes and predicts a wide range of observations. Theories are built from many tested hypotheses.

what is an exmaple of a theory

Darwin's theory of evolution, Bandura's social learning theory

hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

example of a hypothesis

'Children who observe aggressive models will display more aggressive behavior than children who observe non-aggressive models.'

what is theory not

a guess

a theory is it supported by evidence

yes, a substantial amount of evidence

what do theories generate

hypotheses, which are tested, and the results feed back to refine the theory

replication

means repeating a study to see if the same results are obtained

what r 2 types of replication

direct and conceptual

direct replication

• Repeating the exact same procedure to verify results.

• Conceptual replication:

• Testing the same idea using different methods or populations.

what was the replication crisiss

In 2015, the Open Science Collaboration attempted to replicate 100 published psychology studies. Only about 36–39% produced significant results the second time. This 'replication crisis' has led to major reforms

what were the major reforms the replication crisis led to

• Pre-registration of hypotheses and methods before data collection

• Open data and materials — making datasets publicly available

• Larger sample sizes and more rigorous statistical practices

before a study is published in a scientific journal what happens

it is evaluated by independent experts (peers) who assess the methodology, analysis, and conclusions

what is a peer review

when a study it is evaluated by independent experts (peers) who assess the methodology, analysis, and conclusions

what does a peer review do

acts as a quality filter but is not perfect — biased or flawed studies occasionally pass through

what does the replicaton crisis in psych refer to

the fidning that many publushed psych studies failed to produce the same results when repeated

read this

• The scientific method is what makes psychology a science — systematic steps from observation to hypothesis to data to conclusion.

• A good hypothesis is specific, testable, falsifiable, and operationally defined — if you can't measure the variables, you can't test the prediction.

• Theory ≠ hypothesis — a theory is a well-supported, broad explanation; a hypothesis is a single testable prediction derived from one.

• Replication is the cornerstone — direct and conceptual; the 'replication crisis' is psychology confronting findings that don't reproduce.

• Peer review filters but doesn't guarantee — its failures are part of the replication-crisis story.

research methods in psych can be grouped into 3 broad categories name the 3

descriptive, correlational, and experimental

descriptive

1. Observe and describe behavior (no manipulation)

Correlational

— Measure relationships between variables (no manipulation)

1. Experimental

1. — Manipulate variables to test cause and effect

how do resrecahers choose which method to use in their study

depends on the research question, ethical constraints, and practical considerations

what is the purpose of descriptive research

To systematically observe and describe behavior without manipulating any variables.

naturlaistic observation

Watching and recording behavior in its natural environment without interference

examples of naturalistic observation

• Example: Jane Goodall observing chimpanzee behavior in the wild for decades.

• Example: Recording how often drivers use turn signals at an intersection.

what is the strength of naturlaistic observation

High ecological validity — behavior is natural and unforced.

weaknesses of natural observation

No control over variables; observer bias (seeing what you expect to see); the observer effect (behavior changes when people know they are being watched).

observer bias

seeing what you expect to see

observer effect

behavior changes when people know they are being watched

what is a case study

in depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event

examples of case studies

Phineas Gage (frontal lobe and personality), H.M. (hippocampus and memory), Genie (language critical periods).

strenghts of case studies

Rich, detailed data; allows study of rare phenomena.

weaknesses of case studies

Cannot generalize findings to the broader population; researcher interpretation may be biased.

what is a survey

Collecting self-reported data from a sample using questionnaires or interviews

example of surveys

Gallup polls on political opinions, health surveys, satisfaction questionnaires.

strenght of surveys

Can collect data from large samples quickly and inexpensively.

weaknesses of surveys

• Social desirability bias: Respondents give 'acceptable' answers rather than truthful ones.

• Wording effects: How a question is phrased influences the response. (Example: 'Do you support assistance for the poor?' gets more 'yes' than 'Do you support welfare?')

• Response bias: Acquiescence bias (tendency to agree), extreme responding, etc.

• Low response rates can create a non-representative sample.

• Social desirability bias:

• Respondents give 'acceptable' answers rather than truthful ones.

• Wording effects:

• How a question is phrased influences the response. (Example: 'Do you support assistance for the poor?' gets more 'yes' than 'Do you support welfare?')

• Response bias:

• Acquiescence bias (tendency to agree), extreme responding, etc.

what is the limitation of descriptve research

Descriptive research can tell you WHAT is happening, but it CANNOT tell you WHY it is happening, and it CANNOT establish cause-and-effect relationships.

what is correlational research purpose

To measure the relationship (association) between two or more variables without manipulating any of them.

what is the correlational coefficiant “r”

A statistical value that indicates the direction and strength of the relationship.

what is teh rnage of a correlational coefficnat

From -1.00 to +1.00

what is a positive correlaiton

Both variables move in the same direction.

what is a positive corrlaiotn in term sof vairbales

As X increases, Y increases

what is anegtaive correlation

Variables move in opposite directions

what is a negative correlaitn in terms of variables

As X increases, Y decreases

what is 0 correlation

No systematic relationship

what does the absolute value of r indiate

strength

• |r| = 0.00–0.19:

• Very weak

• |r| = 0.20–0.39:

• Weak

• |r| = 0.40–0.59:

• Moderate

• |r| = 0.60–0.79:

• Strong

• |r| = 0.80–1.00:

• Very strong

what is the most important principle in psycholgicla research

Just because two variables are correlated does NOT mean one causes the other

there r 3 possible explanations for any correlation between A and B

1. A causes B: More ice cream → more drowning? (No!)

2. B causes A: More drowning → more ice cream? (No!)

3. Third variable (C) causes both: Hot weather → more ice cream AND more swimming (and thus drowning).

what r some exmaples

• Ice cream sales and drowning rates are positively correlated (third variable: temperature).

• Number of firefighters at a scene and damage caused are positively correlated (third variable: fire size).

• Countries that consume more chocolate win more Nobel Prizes (third variable: national wealth).

why is correlational research still valueable

• Some variables cannot ethically be manipulated (e.g., smoking and cancer, child abuse and development).

• Correlations can predict outcomes even without establishing cause.

• Correlations can identify patterns that generate hypotheses for experimental testing.

what is the purpose of expeiremntal research

To establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one variable and measuring its effect on another, while controlling all other variables.

what are the key components of expeiremntal research

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable the researcher manipulates (the presumed cause).

  • Example: Type of study method (flashcards vs. re-reading)

• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable the researcher measures (the presumed effect).

  • Example: Score on a memory test

• Experimental group: Receives the treatment (flashcards).

• Control group: Does not receive the treatment (re-reading), serving as a baseline.

• Random assignment: Participants are randomly placed into groups so that pre-existing differences are evenly distributed.

• Confounding variables: Any uncontrolled variable that could provide an alternative explanation for results.

• Independent Variable (IV):

• The variable the researcher manipulates (the presumed cause).

  • Example: Type of study method (flashcards vs. re-reading)

• Dependent Variable (DV):

• The variable the researcher measures (the presumed effect).

  • Example: Score on a memory test

• Experimental group:

• Receives the treatment (flashcards).

• Control group:

• Does not receive the treatment (re-reading), serving as a baseline.

• Random assignment:

• Participants are randomly placed into groups so that pre-existing differences are evenly distributed.