A&P 2 Lab Written 3 (respiratory, digestive, urinary)

Nasopharynx

• Extends from the back of the nasal cavity to uvula

• Air only passageway

• Lining - PSCCE

• Location of pharyngeal tonsils

• Location of Eustachian tube opening

Oropharynx

• Extends from uvula to epiglottis

• Passageway for both food and air

• Lining: stratified squamous

• Location of the palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils

Laryngopharynx

• Extends from the epiglottis to the “fork in the road”

• Passageway for both food and air

• Lining: stratified squamous

Larynx

• “voice box”

• Contains the hyoid (bone), epiglottis, false vocal cords, true vocal cords, and is composed of 9 cartilages

9 Cartilages that make up the larynx

Epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage and three pairs of smaller cartilages: corniculate cartilages, arytenoid cartilages, cuneiform cartilages

All of the cartilages are comprised hyaline cartilage, except the epiglottis, which is comprised of elastic cartilage

Epiglottis

• “Guardian of the airway”, allows for food and drink to be routed into the proper pathway when swallowing

• When swallowing, it tips downward, covering the larynx

False vocal cords (vestibular folds)

Superior pair, not involved in sound production; have a protective role

True vocal cords (vocal folds)

Inferior pair, involved in sound production

Trachea

• “Windpipe”

• Connection between the larynx and primary bronchi

• Made of mucosa (PSCCE), submucosa, and hyaline cartilage

Carina

Tip of last cartilage “ring”, internally the mucosa of the carina is sensitive

Bronchial tree

• Primary or principal bronchi - one to each lung

• Secondary or lobar - one to each lung

• Tertiary of segmental bronchi - one to each bronchopulmonary segment

• Continues to branch into bronchioles → respiratory bronchiole → alveolar duct → alveolar sac

Alveolus

Functional unit of the lungs, involved in gas exchange

Parts of the right lung

Superior lobe, middle lobe, inferior lobe, horizontal fissure, oblique fissure

Parts of left lung

Superior lobe, inferior lobe, oblique fissure, cardiac notch

Which of the following would give a higher AVR: rapid/shallow or slow/deep

Slow/deep

Spirometer

Instrument used to evaluate respiratory function

AVR (alveolar ventilation rate)

(# of breaths/min) x (tidal volume (TV) - anatomical dead air or space

15 breaths/min x (500mL-150mL) = 5.25L/min

Tidal Volume (TV)

Amount of air inhaled or exhaled per breath during quiet breathing = 500mL

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled beyond tidal volume = 3100mL

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

The amount that can be forcibly exhaled beyond tidal volume (1200mL)

Risidual Volume (RV)

Amount of air left in lungs after the most forceful expiration (1200mL)

Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

• Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume

• Amount of air that can be maximally inhaled after tidal volume expiration

• 3600mL

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)

• Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume

• Volume left in lungs after a quiet expiration

• 2400mL

Vital Capacity (VC)

• Tidal volume + inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes

• The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a forced inhalation

• 4800mL

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

• Sum of all volumes, including residual volume

• Maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold

• 6000mL or 6L

Where does chemical digestion of carbohydrates first begin?

Begins in the mouth due to salivary amylase (produced by salivary glands) which chemically breaks down starch

Salivary glands

Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual

Tonsils

Palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils

Pharynx (digestive system)

Oropharynx and laryngopharanx

Esophagus

• Located between laryngopharynx and stomach

• Collapsible, muscle tube

• Lining: stratified squamous

Esophageal hiatus

Opening in diaphragm

Cardiac (gastroesophageal) sphincter

Prevents back flow of material from the stomach into the esophagus

Stomach components

Gastric glands, regions, pyloric sphincter, rugae, muscle layers, greater curvature, lesser curvature, greater omentum, lesser omentum

Stomach (general information)

J-shaped pouch; storage; minimal absorption (does absorb alcohol); pH of 2 due to HCl produced by parietal cells; chemical digestion of proteins first begins here due to pepsin, (secreted by chief cells) which chemically breaks down proteins; lining simple columnar

Stomach regions

Cardiac, fundic (fundus), body, pyloric (pylorus)

Pyloric sphincter

Prevents back flow of material from duodenum into stomach

Rugae

Folds of mucosa that submucosa; allow for stomach expansion; and increase surface area

Muscle layers

Longitudinal, circular, oblique

Small intestine

Site of most absorption; villi and microvilli; lining: simple columnar; produces enzymes for the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids

Components of the small intestine

Duodenum (plicae circularis, sphincter of Oddi), jejunum, ileum

Liver function

Produces bile and detoxifies

Gallbladder function

Stores and concentrates bile

Bile function

Emulsify lipids

Liver and gallbladder components

Lobes of liver, falciform ligament, round ligament, right and left hepatic ducts, common hepatic ducts, cystic duct, common bile duct

Lobes of liver

Right lobe, left lobe, caudate lobe, quadrate lobe

Pancreas

Produces enzymes that chemically digest all four macromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) in addition to its endocrine role

Large intestine (colon)

Finishes absorption, prepares material for defacation, lining: simple columnar

Large intestine components

Ileocecal valve, cecum and vermiform appendix, hepatic (right colic) flexure, splenic (left colic) flexure, teniae coli, haustrum, rectum, internal anal sphincter and external anal sphincter, anus

Internal anal sphincter

Comprised of smooth muscle and is under voluntary control

Teniae coli

Smooth muscle band

Sections of large intestine

Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon

Ileocecal valve

Prevents backflow from large intestine into small intestine

Tooth structure

Enamel, dentin, pulp cavity with pulp, periodontal ligament, root canal, cementum, gingiva, crown, root

Enamel

Consists of mineral salts, hardest substance in the body

Dentin

Underlies enamel and comprises the bulk of the tooth; bone-like material

Pulp cavity with pulp

Connective tissue, blood vessels and fibers

Root canal

Where pulp cavity extends into the root

Cementum

Calcified connective tissue that covers the outer surface of the root and connects the tooth to the periodontal ligament

Periodontal ligament

Anchors the tooth to the bone (gomphosis joint)

Crown (of tooth)

Portion of tooth above the gingiva

Root (of tooth)

Portion of tooth embedded in the bone

Incisors

Teeth adapted for cutting

Canines

Teeth adapted for tearing and piercing

Premolars (bicuspids)

Teeth that grind and crush

Molars

Teeth that grind and crush

Mucosa (alimentary canal wall)

Innermost layer, comprised of lining epithelium (type varies based on location), a thin connective tissue layer and a muscularis mucosae

Submucosa (alimentary canal wall)

Connective tisue layer, containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers

Muscularis (alimentary canal wall)

Inner, circular muscle layer: when this layer conracts the alimentary canal shortens

Peristalsis

Wavelike contractile ring that transports food through digestive tract

Stomach muscularis

3 layers:

1. Inner, oblique muscle layer

2. Middle, circular muscle layer

3. Outer, longitudinal muscle layer

Location of kidneys

Retroperitoneal

Location of adrenal glands

Atop of kidneys

What do the kidneys produce and by what processes (3)

Produce urine through glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion

Regions of the kidney

Outer, renal cortex and inner, renal medulla

What is the renal medulla comprised of

Structures called renal pyramids

Whats between the renal pyramids

Extensions of cortical tissue known as renal columns

Corticomedullary junction

Where the renal cortex and renal medulla meet

Renal papilla

• Tip of renal pyramid

• Contains openings of the collecting duct for urine to enter a space known as a minor calyx

• Several minor calyces merge to form a major calyx

• Major calyces merge to form the renal pelvis

Renal pelvis

Leads to the ureter

Ureter

Transports urine from kidney to the (urinary) bladder

Bladder

Stores urine

Urethra

Transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body

(Renal) hilum

Indentation where the renal artery enters and where renal vein and ureter exit

Renal sinus

Space/cavity of medial aspect of the kidney

Nephron

Functional unit of kidney

Pathway of process of filtration and reabsorption in nephron

Glomerulus capillaries → Bowman’s capsule → Proximal convoluted tubule → Descending limb of the Loop of Henle → Ascending limb of the Loop of Henle → Distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → minor calyx → mojor calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → (urinary) bladder → urethra

What is the nephron comprised of

Renal corpuscle (glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule) and renal tubule (proximal convoluted tube, ascending and descending limbs of the Loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule)

Filtration membrane

Wall of glomerulus (glomerular capillaries) that contain fenestrae, visceral layer of the Bowman’s capsule and the shared basement membrane between them

Fenestrae

Pores (holes/gaps) in the glomerular capillary walls

Podocytes

Cells that comprise the visceral layer of the Bowman’s capsule

Pedicels or foot processes

Extensions of the podocytes

Filtration slits

Areas in between the pedicels where the glomerulus is not being covered

Juxtaglomerular apparatus (what it does and what it consists of (2))

Function: Involved in long-term Bp regulation

1. Juxtaglomerular cells of the afferent arteriole (release renin)

2. Macula densa cells of the distal convoluted tubule

Blood flow

From heart: Abdominal aorta → Renal artery → Segmental artery → Lober artery → Interlobular artery → Arcuate artery → Interlobular artery (cortical radiate artery) → Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus → Efferent arteriole → peritubular capillaries (vasa recta)

To heart: Peritubular capillaries (vasa recta) → Interlobular vein (cortical radiate vein) → Arcuate vein → Interlobular vein → Lobar vein → Segmental vein → Renal vein → Inferior vena cava

Percentage of different kinds of nephrons in the body

85% cortical nephrons; 15% juxtamedullary nephrons

Juxtamedullary nephrons

Involved in the production of concentrated uring

Vasa recta

Capillary bed intertwined with the Loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons

Glomerular filtration

Process in which material passes from the glomerulus through the filtration membrane into the Bowman’s capsule

Tubular reabsorption

Material in the tubule passes through the tubule wall, then through the peritubular capillary wall, into the peritubular capillary

Tubular secretion

Material in the peritubular capillary, passes through the peritubular capillary wall, then through the tubule wall into the renal tubule