PLP2000 Exam 3 Flashcards

Exam 3 Fall 2025

What was the Shang Dynasty known for?

• first historically confirmed dynasty of China

• known for farming millet, rice, and wheat

• using bronze tools and oracle bone writing

• developing a social hierarchy of kings, artisans, and workers

What caused the decline of the Shang Dynasty?

Corruption, oppressive rule, and warfare with the Zhou

What major idea did the Zhou Dynasty introduce?

The Mandate of Heaven

How was the Zhou Dynasty structured politically?

Began as centralized but became decentralized during the Warring States Period, with a feudal system of lords managing land.

What philosophies emerged during the Zhou Dynasty?

Confucianism and Taoism

What caused the decline of the Zhou Dynasty?

Fragmentation of the court and eventual takeover by the Qin

What was the Qin Dynasty’s biggest achievement?

Unifying China after the Warring States Period

What were some innovations during the Qin Dynasty?

Expanded irrigation, use of iron plows, and construction of roads and canals

What led to the fall of the Qin Dynasty?

Harsh Legalist policies, forced labor for massive projects, and heavy taxes that caused peasant revolts

When did humans first arrive in the Americas?

Between 15,500–13,000 years ago

How did humans reach the Americas?

They spread from Africa through Eurasia and crossed the Bering Land Bridge from Siberia to Alaska during the last Ice Age

Why are the first American fossils newer than those in Africa or Eurasia?

The Americas were the last continents to be populated by humans.

What archaeological evidence supports early human life in the Americas?

The Clovis culture (~13,500 years ago) left stone tools, and Pre-Clovis evidence includes a mastodon rib with a spear tip.

Why did civilization develop later in the Americas than in Eurasia?

Fewer domesticable plants and animals and geographic isolation limited early agricultural development which would lead to civilization

What were the effects of the Clovis extinctions?

Around 12,700 years ago, overhunting and climate change wiped out about 35 genera of large animals, including mammoths and camels

What were the two major calorie crops of the Americas?

Maize (corn) and potatoes

How did American farmers adapt to their environment?

slash-and-burn farming, terraces, and raised fields

What was the Olmec civilization?

The first major Mesoamerican civilization, existing from about 2500–400 BCE.

What were key Olmec agricultural and hunting practices?

They grew maize, beans, squash, chiles, and cotton using slash-and-burn methods and hunted deer, peccary, fish, and shellfish

What were major Olmec innovations?

Hieroglyphic writing, a calendar, compasses for building alignment, asphalt production, and monumental architecture like mounds and pyramids

Which later civilizations did the Olmec influence?

The Maya and the Aztecs

What was the political structure of the Mayan civilization?

Independent city-states ruled by kings (ajaw) with a class system of nobles, priests, merchants, peasants, and slaves.

What were Mayan agricultural techniques?

Slash-and-burn farming, terraces, and raised fields.

What were Mayan scientific achievements?

Base-20 math system, concept of zero, and highly accurate astronomy and planetary tables.

What writing system did the Maya develop?

A pictographic hieroglyphic script (many texts were later destroyed by the Spanish).

What caused the decline of the Mayan civilization?

Overpopulation, warfare, drought, and ecological collapse that exceeded the land’s carrying capacity.

Why did state-level civilizations arise later in the Americas than in the Old World?

Due to fewer domesticable plants and animals and distance from other continents.

What path did American civilizations follow once they arose?

Similar to the Old World—with advances in communication, art, science, and complex societies

_______ growth increases by a constant amount, while _______ growth increases by a constant rate, leading to faster population growth over time

1. Arithmetic

2. Exponential

In population biology, ________ _______ is how long it takes for a population to double in size.

doubling time

What does the sigmoid (S-shaped) population curve represent?

Population growth that starts slowly, accelerates exponentially, then levels off as resources become limited and carrying capacity is reached.

What limits population growth according to the sigmoid curve?

Resource depletion, lack of water, density-dependent diseases, and environmental carrying capacity.

What is carrying capacity?

The maximum number of individuals a given habitat can sustainably support.

Who was Thomas Malthus and what did he argue?

An English scholar who wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population; he argued that population growth will always tend to outpace food supply unless checked by natural limits like famine or disease.

What are Malthus’s three main principles?

1. Food is necessary for survival

2. Sex happens, therefore population grows

3. Earth’s resources are limited.

What happens if population growth isn’t checked, according to Malthus?

Population will surpass environmental limits, leading to collapse.

Which were the first known civilizations?

Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and Egypt.

Which early civilization was the first to decline?

The Indus Valley Civilization, around 2000 BCE.

What marked the beginning of the first civilizations?

The development of agriculture.

What was the Agricultural Package and who developed it?

Set of innovations from the Natufian society, including the domestication of plants and animals that supported settled life and farming.

Why were rivers crucial for early civilizations?

They provided water for irrigation, fertile soils, and transportation routes for trade and agriculture.

What were the main crops grown by the Sumerians?

Barley, wheat, flax, dates, apples, plums, and grapes.

How did the Sumerians use irrigation?

They built canals connecting rivers to agricultural fields to control water supply

What farming tools did the Sumerians develop?

Plows and basic agricultural implements.

What type of farming did Sumerians practice?

Monoculture, or growing the same crop repeatedly in one area.

What was the Sumerian government like?

It was a theocracy with a centralized bureaucracy.

What social classes existed in Sumerian society?

Priests, craftsmen, soldiers, peasants, and slaves.

What was the largest Sumerian city?

Uruk, one of the world’s first cities

What were ziggurats used for in Sumerian cities?

They served as central temples for religious worship and political authority.

When did Sumerian writing first appear?

Around 3100 BCE.

What were the three stages of Sumerian writing?

Pictograph → Cuneiform → Syllabic script.

Who could write in Sumerian society?

Only trained scribes, who underwent about 15 years of specialized education

What did the Sumerian Code of Law include?

Prescribed punishments and payments related to adultery, divorce, slavery, agriculture, and property.

What was the Sumerian number system based on?

The sexagesimal system (base 60), used for math and timekeeping.

What metals did the Sumerians use in metallurgy?

Copper, gold, and silver.

What caused the decline of Sumerian civilization?

Over-salinization of soil and loss of agricultural productivity, also known as “Sumerian disease.”

What was the main consequence of soil salinization in Sumer?

Loss of fertile farmland, leading to the decline of their agricultural base and eventual societal collapse.

What type of land and climate did Ancient Greece have for agriculture?

Greece had rocky, mountainous terrain and a Mediterranean climate with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers—conditions that limited large-scale farming.

What challenges did Greek farmers face?

Poor, thin soils and limited flat land made large-scale crop cultivation difficult

What was the main agricultural strategy in Ancient Greece?

Terrace farming on hillsides to prevent erosion and make better use of arable land.

What were the main crops grown in Ancient Greece?

Olives, grapes, barley, and wheat were the staple crops.

Why were olives and grapes so important in Greek agriculture?

They grew well in poor, dry soil and became essential trade goods (olive oil and wine).

What animals were commonly raised in Ancient Greece?

Sheep and goats, which could graze on rocky hillsides unsuitable for crops.

How did trade influence Greek agriculture?

Limited farmland led Greeks to trade olive oil, wine, and pottery for grains and other goods from Egypt, the Black Sea, and the Near East.

What agricultural innovation helped with food storage in Greece?

Large clay storage jars called pithoi were used to store olive oil, grain, and wine.

What technological innovations supported Greek agriculture?

Iron tools such as plows, sickles, and hoes improved efficiency and productivity.

What role did agriculture play in the Greek economy?

Agriculture was the foundation of the economy; most citizens were small-scale farmers who provided food for their families and local trade.

How did Greek agriculture differ from that of river valley civilizations?

Unlike Mesopotamia or Egypt, Greece relied on rainfall and terracing rather than large river irrigation systems.

What is abiogenesis?

The outdated and disproven idea that organic life can spontaneously arise from abiotic conditions

What is a monoculture in agriculture? 

Growing a single crop or raising a single livestock species exclusively in a specific area

Why are monoculture crops more susceptible to disease?

They lack genetic diversity and are often in large, densely populated groups which makes them susceptible to pathogens

What were Koch’s postulates to establish cause of disease?

1. The suspected pathogen must be found in every instance of the disease, but not in healthy organisms

2. The pathogen/causative agent is isolated and grown in pure culture

3. The isolated pathogen causes disease when introduced to a secondary, healthy organism 

4. The same pathogen is found in the second host when infected

What are characteristics of fungi as a causal agent of plant disease?

• Includes mycelia, spores

• Causes rust, mold, left spots, and wilt

What are two real world examples of fungi causing plant disease? 

• Ceylon (a major coffee producing area of the British Empire) had a rust fungus, which led to the British abandoning coffee in favor of tea

• Ergotism: a fungus that affects grains, causes hallucinations, burning sensations, and cuts off the circulation system (which can result in amputation) 

What are characteristics of bacteria as a causal agent of plant disease?

Causes left spots, wilt, galls

What are characteristics of viruses as a causal agent of plant disease?

Composed of nucleoprotein (nucleic acid + protein)

What’s an example of viruses causing diseases in plants? 

Citrus tristeza: affects fruit quality and quantity (causes them to become different shapes/sizes), brown citrus aphids are vectors

What’s an example of a nematode causing disease in plants?

Root knot, which affects the roots of plants and prevents them from absorbing water and nutrients properly 

What 3 factors (the disease triangle) are needed for the spread of disease? 

Pathogen (virulence, abundance, etc) + environment (conditions favoring disease) + host (conditions favoring susceptibility) = disease 

What are drawbacks of using pesticides? 

• Can kill organisms that aren’t the target

• Can contaminate the environment

• Can increase in quantity further up the food chain, causing illness in apex predators and humans

How can we prevent pesticide resistance? 

1. Only apply when necessary and use other biological, technological or cultural controls

2. Monitor diseases ahead of time to prepare

3. Select and use insecticides wisely

   • Alternate pesticides with different modes of action

   • Follow instructions for treatment

   • Spot treat

Which Greek figures are associated with advances in math and astronomy?

• Pythagoras

• Euclid

• Archimedes

• Heraclides

• Aristarchus

• Eratosthenes

Which Greek figures are associated with medicine and biology?

• Hippocrates

• Aristotle

• Theophrastus

What was Pythagorus known for?

• Head of religious sect that believed math was the way to achieve enlightenment

• Pythagorean Theorem (may or may not have been invented by him, instead by someone else in his sect)

What was Euclid known for?

• Father of geometry, number theory

• Wrote ‘Elements’ which was the primary math text until 20th century

What was Archimedes known for?

• Principle of the lever

• Block and tackle pulley

• Screw pump

• Pi

What was Heraclides known for?

• Earth rotates on its axis

  • East to west

  • 1 rotation per 24 hours

What was Aristarchus known for?

• Heliocentrism- planets revolving around the sun

• Put planets in the correct order

What was Eratosthenes known for?

• Circumference of the Earth

  • Experiment by measuring angle of noon sun at solstice in two different cities

• Latitude and longitude

What was Hippocrates known for?

• Physical cause of illnesses

• Symptoms and disease progression

• Brain as center of thoughts

• Humorism

What is Aristotle known for?

• Knowledge through experience

• Deductive reasoning and logic

• Zoology

  • genus and species

  • marine animal anatomy

  • bird embryology

  • ruminant stomachs

• Geology

  • Hydrological cycle

  • Changing sea levels

What is Theophrastus known for?

• Plant taxonomy

• Horticultural methods

  • Germination

  • Pollination

  • Plant pests and disease

What agricultural characteristics were associated with the Persian Empire?

• Large empire = large amount of land with diverse ecosystems

• Transregional polyculture (lots of different crops/climates)

What agricultural techniques did the ancient Persians use?

• Irrigation techniques on various rivers throughout empire

• Qanat system: used underground ducts to transport water great distances

What kind of social structure did the Persian Empire have?

• Monarchical

• Strong bureaucracy

• Decentralized state governed by satraps

Why did the Persian Empire decline?

Conquered by Alexander the Great, succeeded by Seleucids, Parthians, Sassanians

What river was important to the Romans?

Tiber River

What were the agricultural characteristics of the Roman Empire?

• Aquaducts

• Monoculture AND polyculture

What type of society did the Roman Empire have?

Very hierarchical society

• Nobles > wealthy citizens > commoners > slaves

What caused the decline of the Roman Empire?

Weak government led to societal collapse, taken over by barbarian tribes