Comparative Politics Final

Comparative Politics

is the study and comparison of political systems, institutions, and processes across different countries to understand their behavior and outcomes.

Comparative Method

is a research approach in comparative politics that involves analyzing multiple cases to identify patterns and causal relationships across different political systems.

Correlation versus Causation

is a critical concept in comparative politics that distinguishes between the relationship of two variables and the identification of one variable as the cause of changes in another.

State

an organized political community under a government with sovereignty, laws, and recognition from other states.

Sovereignty

is the authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions without external interference.

State-Building

the process of constructing or structuring a national state, often involving the establishment of political institutions and governance.

Neo-Patrimonialism

a political system where personal networks, patron-client relationships, and informal institutions dominate state governance, often undermining formal bureaucratic structures.

Bureaucratic-Rational State

is a form of government characterized by a structured hierarchy, formal rules, and a focus on efficiency and rationality in administration and decision-making.

Fragile State

a government that can't perform basic functions like providing security, services (health, education), or justice, often due to weak institutions, lack of legitimacy, and internal conflict.

Nation

A group of people sharing a common culture, language, or history, often aspiring to self-governance or a common political identity.

Nationalism

is an ideology and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty over its homeland. It often emphasizes a shared identity, culture, language, or history.

Ethnic Nationalism

is a form of nationalism in which the 'nation' is defined in terms of ethnicity. It emphasizes shared heritage, language, culture, and ancestry over civic membership.

Civic Nationalism

is a form of nationalism in which the 'nation' is defined by adherence to a common set of political values and institutions, regardless of ethnicity, race, or religion. It emphasizes shared citizenship and political participation.

Self-determination

is the right of a people to govern themselves or choose their own political status without external compulsion, often associated with the aspiration for national independence.

Secession

is the act of withdrawing formally from a federation or body, especially a political state.

Irredentism

is a political movement designed to reclaim a 'lost' territory and/or people that are perceived to belong to one's nation but are currently under the control of another state.

Collective Action

refers to the efforts of a group of people to achieve a common objective, often involving coordinated actions to overcome individual barriers or costs.

Social Movement

is a loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal, typically for the implementation or prevention of a change in society's structure or values.

Civil Society

refers to the aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens, distinct from the state and the market.

Non-Violent Protest

is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, or other methods, without using violence.

Social Media

refers to interactive computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, career interests, and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks.

Democracy

is a system of government where citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, typically characterized by free and fair elections, rule of law, and protection of human rights.

Liberal Democracy

is a democratic system of government in which individual rights and freedoms are officially recognized and protected, and the exercise of political power is limited by the rule of law. It often includes elements like constitutionalism, free press, and an independent judiciary.

Electoral Democracy

is a system where the government is chosen by elections, but may not fully protect civil liberties or effectively apply the rule of law. It emphasizes the electoral process as the primary mechanism for legitimacy.

Democratization

is the transition to a more democratic political regime, involving a movement away from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one. This process can include the establishment of new institutions, reforms, and changes in political culture.

Modernization Theory

is a theory used to explain the process of modernization within societies, positing that all societies follow a similar path from traditional to modern, often linking economic development to the emergence of democracy.

Parliamentary System

is a system of democratic governance in which the executive branch derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (parliament). The head of government (Prime Minister) is typically not directly elected by the populace.

Presidentialism

is a system of government in which the head of government is also the head of state and leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch. The president is typically elected directly by the people.

Semi-presidentialism

is a system of government in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet, with the latter responsible to the legislature of a state. It combines elements of both presidential and parliamentary systems.

Single-member District

is an electoral district that returns one officeholder to a body with multiple members such as a legislature. This method is often associated with plurality or majority voting rules.

Proportional Representation

is an electoral system in which the number of seats a political party wins in an election is directly proportional to the percentage of votes it receives. It aims to ensure that minority parties are represented in the legislature.

Runoff Elections

a second election held to determine a winner when no candidate in the initial election received the required majority or plurality of votes.

Authoritarianism

is a form of government characterized by absolute obedience to authority, often with suppression of opposition and individual freedoms.

Totalitarianism

is a form of government that seeks to control all aspects of public and private life, often through a single ruling party, censorship, and widespread surveillance.

Resource Curse

is the paradox that countries with an abundance of natural resources tend to have less economic growth, less democracy, and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer natural resources.

Competitive Authoritarianism

is a hybrid political regime that combines formal democratic institutions (like elections) with significant authoritarian practices that create an uneven playing field between the incumbent and the opposition.

Democratic Backsliding

is the process by which a state's political system moves away from democracy towards authoritarianism. It can involve weakening democratic institutions, eroding civil liberties, or manipulating elections.

Autocratization

is the process by which a country moves from a democratic regime to an autocratic one, encompassing democratic backsliding and the emergence of new autocracies.

Executive Takeover

is a situation where the executive branch of government centralizes power and undermines or bypasses other branches, often weakening checks and balances.

Polarization

is the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes, often preventing compromise and leading to increased social and political division.

Public Goods

are goods that are non-excludable (people cannot be prevented from using them) and non-rivalrous (one person's use does not diminish another's ability to use them), such as national defense or clean air.

Economic Liberalism

is an economic ideology that supports free markets, free trade, and limited government intervention in the economy.

Communism

is a political and economic ideology that advocates for a classless society in which all property and resources are communally owned and controlled by the state for the benefit of all.

Social Democracy

is a political, social, and economic ideology that supports economic and social interventions to promote social justice within a liberal-democratic polity and a capitalist-oriented mixed economy.

State-led development

is a strategy where the government plays a central role in guiding and promoting economic growth and industrialization, often through planning, public investments, and protectionist policies.

State Capitalism

is an economic system where the state, rather than private actors, owns or controls a significant portion of capital and plays a dominant role in managing the economy, often for political purposes.

Neo-Liberalism

is a political and economic philosophy that generally supports economic liberalization, free markets, free trade, deregulation, privatization, and a reduction in government spending.

Post-Neoliberalism

is a political and economic trend or discourse that emerged in various regions, challenging neoliberal policies and often advocating for greater state intervention, social welfare programs, and regional integration.

Welfare State

is a system in which the government undertakes the responsibility for the health and welfare of its citizens, especially those in financial or social need, by means of grants, pensions, and other benefits.

Inequality

is the state of not being equal, especially in status, rights, opportunities, or wealth.

Colonialism

is the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.

Dependent Development

is a theory suggesting that peripheral (developing) countries remain economically dependent on core (developed) countries, limiting their ability to achieve genuine autonomous development.

Import Substitution Industrialization

is a trade and economic policy which advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production to reduce foreign dependency through local industrialization.

Inclusive Institutions

are economic and political institutions that allow and encourage participation by the great mass of people in economic activities that make the best use of their talents and skills, protecting property rights, enforcing contracts, and providing public services.

Political Globalization

refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the globe, including enhanced international cooperation, the rise of transnational organizations, and the spread of global governance norms.

Economic Globalization

refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital, and wide and rapid spread of technologies.

Societal Globalization

refers to the increasing interconnectedness of people and cultures across the world, including the diffusion of ideas, information, images, and identities.

De-globalization

is the process of diminishing interdependence and integration between certain units around the world, typically involving a reduction in international trade, capital flows, and cultural exchange.

Political Identity

is the sense of belonging to a specific political group or having shared political views, values, and interests that influence one's political behavior and perceptions.

Primordialism

is a theory that views national or ethnic identity as ancient, fixed, and deeply rooted in shared ancestry, language, culture, and history, often considered to be natural and unchangeable.

Constructivism

is a theory that views national or ethnic identity as socially constructed and therefore not fixed, but rather dynamic, evolving, and influenced by political, social, and economic processes.

Gender Gap

refers to the differences in political attitudes and behaviors between men and women, such as voting patterns, policy preferences, or representation in political office.

Reserved Seats

are electoral quotas where a certain number or percentage of seats in a legislature are set aside specifically for members of a particular group, often women or ethnic minorities, to ensure their representation.

Party Candidate Quotas

are internal rules within political parties that mandate a certain percentage of candidates on their electoral lists must belong to a specific group, such as women, to increase their representation in elections.

Populism

is a political approach that appeals to the common person by contrasting this group with a perceived 'elite' and often advocates for direct action by the people against established institutions.

Political Violence

refers to acts of violence carried out by groups or states to achieve political goals, often involving coercion, intimidation, or destruction.

Revolution

is a fundamental and often rapid change in political power and organizational structure, usually accompanied by widespread social and political upheaval.

Terrorism

is the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims.

Westminster Model

is a parliamentary system of government that originated in the United Kingdom, characterized by a fusion of powers between the executive and legislature, a strong cabinet led by a Prime Minister, and a two-party system.

Labour Party (UK)

is one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, generally advocating for democratic socialist policies, social justice, and workers' rights.

Conservative Party (UK)

is one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, traditionally espousing center-right policies, including fiscal conservatism, lower taxes, and a strong national defense.

Reform Party (UK)

is a right-wing populist political party in the United Kingdom, founded by Nigel Farage, advocating for policies such as lower taxes, reduced immigration, and often associated with skepticism towards international bodies.

BREXIT

refers to the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, following a June 2016 referendum, impacting trade, immigration, and political relations.

Fifth Republic (France)

is the current republican system of government in France, established in 1958 by Charles de Gaulle, characterized by a strong presidency (semi-presidential system) and a powerful executive branch.

Marine Le Pen

is a French politician who has led the National Rally (formerly National Front) party, known for her nationalist, anti-immigration, and Eurosceptic policies.

Emmanuel Macron

is the current President of France, known for his centrist, pro-European, and economically liberal policies; he founded the La République En Marche! party.

Triple Transition

refers to the simultaneous processes of democratization, marketization (transition to a market economy), and nation-state building experienced by many post-communist countries after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Vladimir Putin

is the current President of Russia, having held power as either president or prime minister since 1999, characterized by strong centralized leadership and often described as a personalist autocrat.

Personalist Autocracy

is a form of authoritarian rule where the political system is concentrated around a single individual leader who exercises power directly and without formal constraints, often relying on patronage and cult of personality.

Mao Zedong

was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China, which he governed as the Chairman of the Communist Party of China from 1949 until his death in 1976.

Deng Xiaoping

was a Chinese politician who was the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 until his retirement in 1989. He is credited with initiating the 'socialist market economy' and opening China to the global economy.

Xi Jinping

is the current paramount leader of China, serving as General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and Chairman of the Central Military Commission since 2012, and President of the People's Republic of China since 2013, consolidating significant power.

Chinese Communist Party

is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China, and the world's second largest political party, maintaining a monopoly on political power.

Party-state

is a type of state in which a single political party holds dominant power over the government and often intertwines its organizational structure with that of the state itself, as seen in China.

Cultural Revolution

was a sociopolitical movement in China from 1966 until 1976, launched by Mao Zedong, aimed at preserving 'true' Communist ideology in the country by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society.

Mohandas Gandhi

was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who employed nonviolent resistance and led India to independence from British rule.

Congress Party

(Indian National Congress) is one of the two major political parties in India, historically dominant and central to India's independence movement.

BJP (Hindu nationalism)

(Bharatiya Janata Party) is one of the two major political parties in India, advocating for Hindu nationalist (Hindutva) policies and currently the ruling party.

Narendra Modi

is the current Prime Minister of India, serving since 2014. He is a prominent leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and is associated with economic reforms and Hindu nationalist policies

AMLO

(Andrés Manuel López Obrador) is the former President of Mexico. He is a left-wing populist politician who founded the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA) party.

Claudia Sheinbaum

is a Mexican politician and scientist, a prominent member of MORENA, and a leading figure in contemporary Mexican politics, who served as Mayor of Mexico City and is the President.

Biafra

was a secessionist state in southeastern Nigeria that existed from 1967 to 1970, whose attempt to secede led to the Nigerian Civil War.

Youthquake (Nigeria)

refers to the significant political engagement and mobilization of young people in Nigeria, particularly during elections, exercising their demographic power to influence political outcomes.

Guardian Council

is an influential, constitutionally mandated 12-member body in Iran, consisting of six clerics and six jurists, that vets laws for conformity with Islam and the constitution, and approves candidates for elections.

Revolutionary Guard

(Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps or IRGC) is a major paramilitary force in Iran, established after the 1979 revolution, intended to protect the country's Islamic revolutionary system and distinct from the regular armed forces.

Mahsa (Jina) Amini protest movement

refers to the widespread protests in Iran that began in September 2022 following the death of Mahsa Amini while in the custody of the morality police, sparking strong calls for women's rights and an end to compulsory hijab laws.

Basij

is a large volunteer militia in Iran, often serving as an auxiliary force to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), used for internal security, law enforcement, religious policing, and suppression of dissent.