anatomy and physiology exam one lesson one

anatomy

study of structure

physiology

study of function

Terminologia Anatomica

two organizations standardized anatomical vocabulary was published here so that anatomists in different countries can use the same terms when discussing anatomy

inspection

look at appearance

palpation

feeling a structure with the hands

auscultation

listening to sounds produced by body

percussion

tap on the body, feel for resistance, and listen to emitted sound for abnormalities

dissection

cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships; use a cadaver, a dead human body

comparative anatomy

study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution

exploratory surgery

opening the living body to see what is wrong; now replaced by medical imaging to view inside without surgery

radiology

branch of medicine specializing in imaging

gross anatomy

structures visible with the naked eye

suface anatomy

exterior features

regional anatomy

body areas

systemic anatomy

organ systems

clinical anatomy

medical specialities (pathological anatomy- changes that occur during illness, radiographic anatomy- structures seen using specialized imaging techniques)

developmental anatomy

from conception to death, includes embryology

microscopic anatomy

requires the aid of a microscope

cytology

study of structure and function of cells; fine detail (ultrastructure) may be resolved using an electron microscope

Histology

examination of tissues with microscope

Histopathology

microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Neurophysiology

physiology of nervous system

Endocrinology

physiology of hormones

systemic physiology

function of an organ system

pathophysiology

mechanisms of disease

comparative physiology

study of different species to learn about body functions

basis for much of our understanding of human physiology and the development of new drugs

organism composed of organ systems

human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy HIGHEST

Organ system composed of organs

human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy SECOND HIGHEST

Organs composed of tissues

human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy THIRD HIGHEST

tissues composed of cells

human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy FOURTH HIGHEST

Cells composed partly of organelles

human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy FIFTH HIGHEST

Organelles composed of molecules

human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy SIXTH HIGHEST

Molecules composed of atoms

human organization based on successive levels of hierarchy SEVENTH HIGHEST

organism

a single complete individual

organ system

group of organs with a unique collective function; for example circulation, respiration, digestion

Organ

structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a function

tissue

similar cells and cell products forming a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function

cell

smallest unit to carry out all basic functions of life

organelle

structure within a cell that carry out a function

molecule

particle composed of two or more atoms

atom

smallest particle with unique chemical identity

macromolecules

largest molecules (proteins, fats, DNA)

situs inversus

left right reversal of organ placement

homeostasis

the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

claude Bernard

1813-1878 noted fairly constant internal conditions despite changing external conditions (for example, internal temperature stays fairly constant at 97-99°F or 36- 37°C)

walter cannon

1871-1945 coined the term homeostasis

Negative feedback

allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point

mechanisms that keeps a variable close to set point; the body senses a change and reverses it

feedback loops

because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them

vasodilation

skin blood vessels dilate because you are too warm

vasoconstriction

skin blood vessels constrict because you are too cold

Baroreflex

homeostasis of blood pressure

it illustrates the common components of a feedback loop

Receptor

structure that senses change in the body (for example, the baroreceptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)

Integrating (control) center

control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (for example, cardiac center of the brainstem

Effector

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (for example the heart)

positive feedback

is a self amplifying cycle

leads to a greater change in the same direction

examples: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals

can sometimes be dangerous

runaway fever

infection causes fever to raise body temperature. his can increase metabolism in cells, which then generate even more heat and raise the temperature even more, which then increases the metabolic rate in cells even more which then generates even more heat… causing a positive feedback loop.

gradient

difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points

pressure gradient

blood flows down here from a place of higher pressure to a place of lower pressure

concentration gradient

chemicals flow down

electrical gradient

charged particles flow down

electrochemical gradient

combination of concentration, electrical gradients

thermal gradient

heat flows down

up the gradient

movement in the opposite direction

requires spending metabolic energy

terminologia anatomica

provides standard international anatomical terms

it provided latin names and english equivalents

1,200 greek and latin roots

about 90% of out current medical terms come from these roots

eponyms

structures named after people

acronyms

pronounceable words formed the first letter, or first few letters, of series of words

example PET scan (positron emission tomography)

unity of form and function

anatomy and physiology complement each other and cannot be divorced from one another

cell theory

all structure and function result from the activity of cells

hierarchy of complexity

human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity

homeostasis

the purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body

gradients and flow

matter and energy tend to flow down gradients

radiology

over half of all medical imaging

penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body; dense tissue appears white

radiopaque substances can be injected or swallowed to fill hollow structures, for example, blood vessels, intestinal tract

digital subtraction angiography

is useful for showing blockages and blood flow

Contrast medium injected into blood vessel. Previous X-ray image is digitally removed to show the labeled vessels. Useful for showing blockages, cerebral blood flow, narrowing (stenosis) of renal arteries, and aid in threading catheters into blood vessels.

computed tomography (CT scan)

low intensity x rays and computer analysis

slice type image

increased sharpness of image compared to x rays; used to identify tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

superior quality to ct scan and no x ray exposure

best for soft tissue

Functional MRI

shows real time changes in the brain activity

positron emission tomography (PET)

assesses metabolic state of tissue

inject radioactively labeled glucose

image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment

damaged tissues appear dark since they consume little to no glucose

sonography

second oldest and second most widely used

high frequency sound waves echo back form internal organs

avoid harmful x-rays so good for obstetrics

image not very sharp

supine

body is lying flat with the stomach and face superior

(sit up)

prone

body is lying flat with the stomach and face inferior

(push up)

frontal plane

divides body into anterior and posterior portions.

sagittal place

divides body into left and right portions

midsagittal plane

lies in the middle para

sagittal plane

is offset from the middle

transverse plane

divides body into superior and inferior portions