a&p test 1

anatomy

study of structure of body parts and their relations to each other

physiology

study of the function of living things

chemical level

atoms form to make molecules

cellular level

cells are made from molecules

tissue level

tissues are made of similar cells

organ level

organs are made up of different types of tissues

organ system level

organ systems consist of different organs

organismal level

the human organism is made up of many systems

what are the requirements for life

maintaining boundaries, movement, digestion, excretion, responsiveness, metabolism, reproduction, and growth

digestion

process of breaking down nutrients into small subparts

excretion

moving material from inside to outside the body

homeostasis

attempting to keep a state of dynamic equilibrium

stimulus

produces a change in a variable

receptor/sensor

detects change

afferent pathway

the pathway where input is sent to the control center to signal change is happening

efferent pathway

the pathway where output is sent to the effector to signal what has to change for homeostasis

effector

target that changes the physiology back towards the set point

integumentary system

forms the external body and protects deeper tissue from injury, synthesizes vitamin D, houses cutaneous receptors and sweat/oil glands

cutaneous receptor

pain and pressure receptors

skeletal system

protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement

bones

store minerals and is where blood cells are formed

muscular system

allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expressions. maintains posture and produces heat

endocrine system

glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells

nervous system

fast acting control system, it responds to internal and external changes by activating the appropriate muscles and glands

cardiovascular system

blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, and waste. the heart pumps blood

lymphatic system

picks up fluid leaked from body vessels and returns it to blood, disposes of debris, houses lymphocytes

lymphocytes

white blood cells involved in immunity, they attack foreign substances

respiratory system

keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes CO2, the gaseous exchange occurs through walls of air sac in lungs

digestive system

breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution into the body, and indigestible things are eliminated as feces

urinary system

eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body. Regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance of blood

negative feedback

physiology “increases”, the homeostatic response decreases (body temp)

positive feedback

physiology “increases”, the homeostatic response also increases (platelet plug)

platelet plug

when there is a break or tear in blood vessels wall more platelet is released to plug it

anatomical position

arms and legs straight down and the hands faced forward

superior

upper part of the structure (axial anatomy/head and torso)

cranial

towards the head (axial anatomy/head and torso)

inferior

lower part of the structure (axial anatomy/head and torso)

caudal

towards the tail (axial anatomy/head and torso)

anterior/ventral

the front of the body

posterior/dorsal

the back of the body

medial

structures toward the midline of the body

lateral

structures away from the midline of the body

proximal

structures that are closer to the appendage’s attachment to the main body (used for arms/legs)

distal

structures that are further from the appendage’s attachment to the main body (used for arms/legs)

planes

used to describe the primary movements of joints and to orient the view of a body part/organ if it’s been dissected

frontal/coronal plane

divides the body into anterior and posterior

median/midsagittal plane

divides the body into left and right

transverse plane

divides the body into superior and inferior

cell

structural and functional unit of life

cytoplasm

intracellular fluid

extracellular fluid

fluid on the outside of the cell, interstitial fluid, blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid

phospholipids

makes up 75% of plasma membrane, assembles into the bilayer by phosphate head (hydrophilic) facing cellular fluid and fatty acid tails (hydrophobic) facing the center

glycolipids

5% of plasma membrane, lipids with sugar groups

cholesterol

20% of plasma membrane, increases membrane stability, lipid rafts

transport proteins

transport substances across membranes

channel protein

integral protein that provides a hydrophilic passageway for water and other small polar molecules

gated channel protein

channel protein that’s under control to be open or closed

integral protein

proteins integrated into the bilayer, can be enzymes, cell receptors, and glycoproteins

glycoproteins

integral protein used for cell recognition

peripheral proteins

proteins that are not embedded within the membrane, attached to phosphate heads or anchored to integral proteins, they anchor cytoskeletal elements

tight junctions/zipper proteins

proteins that form a barrier that prevents materials and microbes from passing between cells

desmosomes

anchor cells together mechanically by forming a structural connection between cells, transmit forces from cytoskeleton

gap junctions

form pore complex (channels) between cells that allow materials to pass through

diffusion

the movement of molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

Ficks 1st law of diffusion

Jnet= (P*A(Co - Ci))/d

what is rate of diffusion proportional to

permeability, membrane surface area, and concentration gradient

what is diffusion rate inversely proportional to

distance

osmosis

diffusion of water, low to high areas of solute= high to low areas of water

active transport

moving things against the gradient, requires ATP

Na+/K+ ATPase

3 Na are expelled and 2 K are brought in, using ATP

mitochondria

the powerhouse of the cell, the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain produce ATP, has its own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes, inherited from our moms

inner membrane of mitochondria

contains fold called cristae, where enzyme pump hydrogen ions across into the intermembrane space and the chemical-osmotic gradient pushes hydrogen ions through ATP synthesis

smooth ER

contains integral proteins and enzymes for the metabolism of lipids and synthesis of cholesterol, steroids hormones, and lipids for lipid proteins. plays a role in the absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats, the detoxification of drugs and chemicals, and converting glycogen into glucose

rough ER

has a membrane that contains ribosomes, those ribosomes will assemble amino acid chains that will enter the rough deposit reticulum, proteins are synthesized here and will be bound to membranes for transport to the Golgi

Golgi apparatus

consist of stacked and flattened membranous sacs. transport vesicles from ER enter scis (inner face), then proteins/lipids are modified, processed, tagged, sorted, and packaged, and then transport vesicles will be pinched off the trans (outer) face

the 3 pathways of a transport vesicle

secretory vesicle, lipid/transmembrane proteins, stay in cell and become lysosome

secretory vesicles

vesicles where their contents will leave the cell via exocytosis

lysosomes

membrane bound sacks that contain acid hydrolases, involved in the digestion of bacteria, virus, and toxins. they degrade nonfunctional organelles. they play a role in metabolic functions like breaking down glycogen, dissolving calcium phosphate matrix and bone tissue to release calcium into blood, can cause autolysis

acid hydrolases

digestive enzyme secreted by lysosomes

autolysis

program cell death

peroxisomes

have oxidases and catalase, they neutralize toxins, free radicals, and contribute to metabolism of fatty acids

oxidase

in peroxisomes, convert toxins to peroxide

catalase

in peroxisomes, convert peroxide to water

ribosomes

translat mRNA into amino acid chains to synthesize proteins

free ribosomes

synthesize proteins that will function within the intracellular fluid

membrane-bound ribosomes

attached to the rough ER, these proteins will be incorporated into the membrane or exported from the cell

cytoskeleton

forms the internal structural framework of the cell and consist of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

microfilaments

part of cytoskeleton, consist of protein actin, creates a cross-linked network that is attached to the plasma membrane, strengthening the cell, involved in cell motility, endocytosis, and exocytosis. Contributes to the formation of microvilli in the intestinal simple columnar epithelium

intermediate filaments

part of cytoskeleton, consist of tetramer fibers that are twisted together, help resist pulling forces in the cell, and attached to desmosomes, keratin found in epithelium

microtubules

part of cytoskeleton, hollow tubes made of tubulin proteins, tether organelles in place, and form a network of tracks that help move substances across the cells

motor proteins

use ATP to provide cell motility, sometimes they move substances along the microtubular array, they may use ATP to pull along the actin to create muscular contraction

centrioles

microtubule organization center, a pair of centrioles form a centrosome, responsible for creating the cytoskeletal microtubule network, aid in cell division, and form the basis for cilia and flagella

cilium

the motor protein dynein pull on the adjacent microtubular arrays, causing the 2 adjacent tubes to shift upward/downward, this creates the wave like behavior of cilia

nucleus

contains the genetic code (the DNA for synthesizing proteins) direct the types and amounts of protein that are needed or proteins that need to be produced to be secreted or excreted from the cell

multinucleated

cells with multiple nuclei, skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles, bones, and liver

anucleate

a cell with no nucleus, red blood cells, had it early in development

nuclear envelope

a double membrane consisting of an inner lamina and an outer layer that runs continuous with the rough ER

nuclear pore complexes

spans the layers of the nuclear envelope and creates nuclear pores that control materials that pass through the nuclear envelope

nucleoli

involved in ribosomal RNA synthesis and the assembly of ribosomal subunits

chromatin

how genetic material is organized, 30% DNA, 60% protein histones, and 10% RNA in the process of being transcribed