AP Psychology Unit 1B (1.6 &2.1)

Perception

the process where our sensory receptors receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Top-Down Processing

cognitive approach where perception is driven by your prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences, rather than solely by raw sensory data

Bottom-up Processing

sensory perception approach where the brain builds a perception by starting with individual sensory details and combining them to form a whole.

Schemas

A mental framework that help organize and interpret information.

Perceptual Sets

Mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way, influenced by factors like our expectations, emotions, and past experiences.

Contexts, Experiences, and Cultural Expectations Filter Perceptions

our individual and social backgrounds significantly influence how we interpret sensory information

Gestalt Psychology

emphasizes that the mind perceives experiences as unified wholes rather than as sum of their individuals

Closure

Gestalt principle of perception where the brain mentally fills in missing gaps to see incomplete objects or patterns as complete and whole.

Figure/Ground

Gestalt principle of perception that describes the tendency to organize a visual scene into a prominent object that stands out from its surroundings

Proximity

the principle that we tend to group nearby objects or people together in our perception.

Similarity

a principle describing our tendency to group similar things together, both perceptually and socially

Attention

The general cognitive process of concentrating awareness on specific stimuli in the environment.

Selective Attention

The specific ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out all other competing stimuli.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus auditory attention on one specific stimulus (like a person's voice) while filtering out other, competing stimuli in a noisy environment

Inattentional blindness (Inattention)

the failure to notice an obvious but unexpected stimulus when attention is focused on another task or event.

Change Blindness

A phenomenon where individuals fail to notice significant changes in visual stimulus, even when the changes are obvious.

Binocular Depth Cues

visual cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive depth and distance

Retinal Disparity

the binocular cue for depth perception that results from the slight difference between images captured by each eye.

Convergence

the binocular cue for depth perception, where the inward turning of the eyes indicates how close an object is, which is the opposite of divergent thinking

Monocular Depth Cues

visual cues that allow us to perceive depth and distance using only one eye.

Relative Clarity

a monocular depth cue where hazy or blurry objects are perceived as being farther away than clear, sharp objects.

Relative Size

a monocular depth cue where, if two objects are assumed to be same size, the one that casts a smaller image on the retina is perceived as being farther away

Texture Gradient

a monocular depth cue where the perception of the depth is created by the gradual change in the visual texture of a surface

Linear Perspective

a monocular cue for depth perception where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance, creating the illusion of depth on a two dimensional surface

Interposition

a monocular depth cue where the one object partially blocking the view of another indicates that the occluding object is close

Perceptual Constancy

the ability to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in the sensory input, such as distance, viewing angle, or lighting

Apparent Motion/Movement

the perception of movement in stationary objects due to a rapid sequence of still images

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Absolute Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation needed for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another, such as transforming light or sound waves into neural impulses.

Just Noticeable Difference

The amount something must be changed in order for a difference to be noticeable, detectable at least half the time

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to a constant, unchanging stimulus over time

Weber's Law

The principle that the JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity (Ex. sound in car example)

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sense can influence another, such as smell affecting taste

Synesthesia

A rare condition in which stimulation of one sense leads to automatic experiences in another (e.g., seeing colors when hearing sounds)

Visual Sensory System

The system that detects and processes light to create visual perception

Retina

The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells. Detect light and convert it into electrical signals to be sent to the brain for visual processing

Blind Spot

The point on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye, containing no photoreceptors

Visual Nerve

The bundle of axons that carries neural signals from the retina to the brain's visual cortex

Incomplete Retinal Images

Partial visual input that the brain fills in using prior knowledge and context

Photoreceptors

Specialized cells in the retina (rods and cones) that detect light energy

Rods

Photoreceptors sensitive to dim light and responsible for night vision and peripheral vision

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses light onto the retina

Accommodation

The process by which the lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina

Nearsightedness

A condition where nearby objects are seen clearly but distant ones are blurry due to light focusing in front of the retina

Farsightedness

A condition where distant objects are seen more clearly than nearby ones because light focuses behind the retina

Light and Dark Adaptation

The eye's adjustment to changes in illumination to maintain optimal vision

Color Vision

The ability to distinguish different wavelengths of light as different colors

Trichromatic Theory

The theory that color vision is based on three types of cones: red, green, and blue

Opponent-Process Theory

The theory that color perception is controlled by opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white)

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, where cones are concentrated for sharp vision

Cones (Blue, Green, Red)

Photoreceptors that detect color and function best in bright light

Afterimages

Visual sensations that remain after the stimulus is removed, often due to fatigued photoreceptors

Ganglion Cells

Retinal neurons that receive input from bipolar cells and form the optic nerve

Dichromatism (Color Vision Deficiency)

A color vision defect in which one of the three cone systems is absent or not functioning properly

Monochromatism (Color Vision Deficiency)

Complete color blindness where only shades of gray are perceived

Prosopagnosia

A neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar faces

Blindsight

The ability to respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them, due to damage in the visual cortex

Sound Waves

Vibrations of air molecules that travel through the air and are perceived as sound

Wavelengths (Pitch)

The frequency of sound waves that determines the pitch (highness or lowness) of a sound

Amplitude (Loudness)

The height of a sound wave, determining how loud the sound is

Place Theory (Pitch Perception)

Suggests different sound frequencies stimulate different places on the cochlea's basilar membrane

Volley Theory (Pitch Perception)

Suggests groups of neurons take turns firing to match the frequency of a sound wave

Frequency Theory (Pitch Perception)

Proposes that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a sound

Sound Localization

The process of determining where a sound is coming from using cues from both ears

Hearing Difficulties

Problems in perceiving sound due to damage in the ear or auditory processing pathways

Conduction Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Sensorineural Deafness

Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea's hair cells or auditory nerve

Olfactory System

Olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity send signals via the olfactory bulb directly to the brain's limbic system and cortex

Pheromones

Chemical signals released by organisms to communicate or influence behavior of others of the same species

Gustation

The sense of taste, detecting chemical molecules dissolved in saliva

Tastes: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami, Oleogustus

The six basic taste sensations detected by taste receptors on the tongue

Structures in Tongue, Mouth, & Brain Process and Transduce Taste

Taste buds on the tongue send signals via cranial nerves to the thalamus and gustatory cortex

Taste Receptors

Specialized cells in taste buds that detect specific flavor chemicals

Supertasters, Medium Tasters, Nontasters

Categories of individuals differing in the number and sensitivity of taste buds, affecting taste intensity

Chemical Senses

Smell and taste, which both detect chemical molecules and contribute to flavor perception

Sensory Interaction (Smell & Taste)

The combined effect of smell and taste that creates the overall flavor experience

Structures in Skin and Brain Process & Transduce Touch

Sensory receptors in the skin detect pressure, temperature, and pain, sending signals to the somatosensory cortex

Sensation of Hot (Warm and Cold Activation)

The simultaneous stimulation of both warm and cold receptors produces the sensation of heat

Pain Processed in the Body & Brain

Nociceptors detect tissue damage and send signals to the spinal cord and brain regions like the somatosensory cortex and limbic system

Gate Control Theory

Proposes that the spinal cord contains a "gate" that can block or allow pain signals to pass to the brain

Phantom Limb Syndrome

The sensation of pain or movement in a limb that has been amputated, due to brain reorganization

Vestibular Sense

The sense of body balance and spatial orientation controlled by the inner ear

Semicircular Canals

Structures in the inner ear filled with fluid that detect rotational movement and help maintain balance

Kinesthesis

The body's ability to sense its own position, movement, and action