psycj 1101 - exam 1 rev

Critical Thinking

Examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes that employs an empirical approach to explore and understand without misleading.

Empirical Approach

A method of study that uses careful observation and scientific research to acquire knowledge.

Scientific Attitude

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility in approaching questions to avoid misleading conclusions and support scientific inquiry.

Structuralism

An early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener, which used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function, influenced by Darwin and promoted by William James.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology that redefined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior, prominent in the 1920s to 1960s.

Freudian Psychology

A branch of psychology that emphasized the ways the unconscious mind and childhood experiences influence behavior.

Humanistic Psychology

A perspective that emphasized human growth potential and the importance of love, acceptance, and environmental influences on personal growth.

Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental processes such as perception, learning, remembering, thinking, communication, and problem-solving.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition, including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how evolutionary principles like natural selection influence human behaviors and mental traits.

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Culture

The shared ideas, behaviors, attitudes, values, and traditions passed from one generation to the next within a society.

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing, focusing on happiness and well-being through a meaningful and engaged life.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that considers biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors in understanding behavior and mental processes.

Basic Research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Applied Research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Counseling Psychology

A branch of psychology that helps people with problems in living and achieving greater well-being.

Clinical Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

Psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders, practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Community Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case Study

A descriptive research method in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either factor predicts the other.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates factors to observe the effect on behavior or mental processes.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Informed Consent

A research participant's agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

SQ3R

A study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.

Wilhelm Wundt

Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, seeking to measure the "atoms of the mind" and considered the father of modern psychology.

Edward Titchener

Introduced structuralism to the United States, aiming to break down mental processes through introspection.

William James

Promoted functionalism, focusing on how mental and behavioral processes function to enable adaptation and survival.

Mary Whiton Calkins

A pioneering memory researcher and the first female president of the American Psychological Association.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman to earn a PhD in psychology, synthesizing research on animal behavior in her influential book.

John B. Watson

A behaviorist who demonstrated conditioned responses in humans through the famous 'Little Albert' experiment.

B.F. Skinner

A prominent behaviorist who focused on how consequences shape behavior, expanding on behaviorism with his work on operant conditioning.

Sigmund Freud

Developed Freudian (psychoanalytic) psychology, emphasizing the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on behavior.

Carl Rogers

A founder of humanistic psychology, focusing on the growth potential of individuals and the need for an environment that provides genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.

Abraham Maslow

Best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, focusing on fulfilling human potential and personal growth.

Charles Darwin

Introduced the theory of natural selection, profoundly influencing evolutionary psychology and the understanding of behavior.

Developmental Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

Nature and Nurture

The debate concerning the relative importance of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in determining behavior and development.

Continuity and Stages

The debate over whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages.

Stability and Change

The discussion on which traits persist through life and which ones change as individuals age.

Development

The process of change and growth that occurs throughout an individual's life.

Effects of Poverty on Development

The impact that socioeconomic status can have on an individual's physical, cognitive, and social development.

Prenatal Development

The process of growth and development that occurs from conception to birth.

Zygote

The fertilized egg that results from the union of sperm and egg, lasting for the first two weeks of prenatal development.

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after conception to 8 weeks.

Fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens

Harmful agents or conditions that can impair prenatal development and cause birth defects.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A condition resulting from alcohol consumption during pregnancy, causing physical and cognitive abnormalities in the child.

Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)

Less severe effects of alcohol consumption during pregnancy compared to FAS, including minor physical and cognitive issues.

Newborn Abilities

The innate abilities and reflexes of newborns, including rooting, sucking, and grasping, which help them survive and adapt.

Habituation

The decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations, indicating learning and memory in infants.

Critical Period

A specific time during development when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain environmental stimuli or experiences.

Neural Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience and learning.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (birth to about 2 years), where infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched, developed during the sensorimotor stage.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (about 2 to 7 years), characterized by the use of symbols and language but lacking logical operations.

Conservation

The concept that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance, typically understood during the concrete operational stage.

Egocentrism

The difficulty in seeing things from another person's perspective, characteristic of the preoperational stage.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development (about 7 to 11 years), where children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand conservation.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development (about 12 years and onward), characterized by abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A developmental disorder characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and restricted and repetitive behaviors.

Attachment

An emotional bond with a caregiver that influences a child's development and social relationships.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life, often to a parent figure.

Temperament

The biologically based characteristic patterns of behavior and emotional responses in infants and children.

Basic Trust

Erikson's concept of a sense of trust and security developed through responsive and consistent caregiving.

Adolescence

The transitional period from childhood to adulthood, marked by physical, cognitive, and social changes.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Identity

The sense of self that emerges during adolescence, involving the exploration and commitment to personal values and goals.

Social Identity

The portion of an individual's self-concept derived from their membership in social groups and categories.

Intimacy

The ability to form close, loving relationships, an important task of young adulthood according to Erikson.

Emerging Adulthood

A developmental stage from the late teens to mid-20s, characterized by exploration and instability as individuals transition to adulthood.

Menopause

The time in a woman's life when menstrual periods permanently cease, marking the end of reproductive capacity.

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of life events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Cross-Sectional Study

A research method that compares participants of different ages at a single point in time.

Longitudinal Study

A research method that involves repeated observations of the same participants over a period of time.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of adjusting existing schemas to incorporate new information or experiences.

Scaffolding

Vygotsky's concept of providing support to a child during learning, gradually reducing assistance as the child becomes more competent.

Stranger Anxiety

The fear or anxiety infants show when exposed to unfamiliar people, typically beginning around 8 months of age.

Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, emphasizing obedience and discipline.

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness, allowing considerable freedom and leniency.

Negligent Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and low responsiveness, with little involvement in the child's life.