History Final Exam

Aurelian

Roman emperor (270–275 CE) who restored order during the Crisis of the Third Century and reconquered breakaway regions.

Diocletian

Roman emperor (284–305 CE) who created the Tetrarchy and implemented major military and economic reforms.

Constantine

First Christian emperor; founded Constantinople and issued the Edict of Milan in 313 CE legalizing Christianity.

Julian

The last pagan emperor of Rome (361–363 CE); tried to restore pagan worship and reduce Christian influence.

Valens

 Eastern Roman emperor who died at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE against the Goths.

Theodisus I

Roman emperor who made Christianity the state religion and was the last to rule both East and West.

Honorius

Western Roman emperor during the sack of Rome in 410 CE by Alaric's Visigoths.

Galla Placidia

Powerful Roman empress and mother of Valentinian III; acted as regent and patron of Christian art.

Anastasius

Byzantine emperor (491–518 CE) known for stabilizing the empire financially and religiously before Justinian.

Justinian

 Byzantine emperor (527–565 CE) known for legal codification (Corpus Iuris Civilis), Hagia Sophia, and attempted reconquest of the West

Heraclius

Byzantine emperor who defeated Persia but left the empire weakened before the Islamic conquests.

Tetrarchy

Diocletian’s system of rule by four emperors to stabilize and manage the Roman Empire.

Foederati

Allied barbarian groups settled inside the empire in exchange for military service.

Dead Cities of Syria

Archaeological evidence of thriving late Roman villages abandoned after the 6th century.

Grain Supply

Grain from Egypt and North Africa fed cities like Rome and Constantinople; its disruption marked economic decline.

Goths

A major Germanic group that sacked Rome (410 CE), settled in Aquitaine, and later founded the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain.

Huns

Nomadic horsemen from Central Asia who pushed Germanic tribes into the empire and fought Roman armies.

Vandals

Germanic tribe that established a kingdom in North Africa and sacked Rome in 455 CE

Franks

Germanic people who became Catholic under Clovis and eventually founded medieval France.

Council of Nicaea

Held in 325 CE to condemn Arianism and affirm Trinitarian Christianity.

Council of Chalcedon

Held in 451 CE; defined Christ as having two natures (human and divine), rejecting Miaphysitism.

Arianism

Belief that Christ is subordinate to God the Father; popular among many barbarian groups.

Trinitarianism

Orthodox belief in one God in three coequal persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

Miaphysitism

Belief that Christ has one united nature, divine and human; rejected at Chalcedon but persisted in Egypt and Syria.

Melania the Younger

An elite Roman woman who renounced wealth to pursue ascetic monastic life.

Asceticism

A lifestyle of severe self-discipline and abstention from indulgence for spiritual reasons.

Senatorial Elite to Bishops

 As imperial administration declined, Roman senators increasingly became bishops and church leaders.

Religion of the Barbarians

Most early barbarian kingdoms were Arian Christians, but many converted to Catholicism over time.

Roman Army (East vs. West)

The Eastern army remained centralized and professional; the Western army fragmented and relied on foederati.

Battle of Adrianople

A major defeat for Rome in 378 CE; Emperor Valens was killed by the Goths.

Battle of Catalaunian Fields

Battle in 451 CE where Romans and Visigoths halted Attila the Hun's advance into Gaul.

Battle of Vouillé

Battle in 507 CE where the Franks defeated the Visigoths and took over much of Gaul.

Justinianic Plague

First outbreak of bubonic plague in the empire (541 CE); possibly killed 25–50% in some regions.

536 Event

Climatic event likely caused by volcanic eruptions; led to crop failures and global cooling.

Climate and Disease in Rome's Fall

Recent scholarship suggests that pandemics and climate shifts were central to the empire's collapse.

Muhammad

 Founder of Islam who began receiving revelations in 610 CE and united Arabia by his death in 632.

Believer Movement

Early Islamic movement emphasizing monotheism and eschatological urgency.

Eusebius

Early Christian historian and bishop who wrote the Ecclesiastical History and praised Constantine.

Ammianus Marcellinus

 Late Roman historian and soldier; continued Tacitus’ style and wrote about Julian and Valens.

Procopius

 Historian under Justinian; wrote The Wars, The Buildings, and The Secret History.

Augustine

 Bishop of Hippo and key theologian; wrote Confessions and City of God.

Salvian

Christian writer who criticized Roman moral decay and praised barbarian virtue.

Sidonius Apollinaris

Gallo-Roman aristocrat and bishop whose letters offer insight into 5th-century Gaul.

Gregory of Tours

6th-century bishop and historian who chronicled the Franks in The History of the Franks.

Territorial changes in the unified empire (before 285 CE)

The Roman Empire reached its maximum territorial extent under Trajan (117 CE); later, crises in the 3rd century forced retraction and administrative reforms.

Diocletian’s reforms

In the late 3rd century, Diocletian divided the empire into a Tetrarchy with two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesares) to improve governance and security.

Division of the empire (395 CE)

After Theodosius I's death in 395, the empire was permanently divided into Eastern and Western halves, each with its own emperor

Territorial changes in the Western Empire

The Western Empire lost Britain (early 5th c.), then Gaul, Spain, and Africa to barbarian kingdoms; by 476 CE, the Western Roman Empire had effectively collapsed.

Territorial changes in the Eastern Empire

The East remained intact longer, reconquering parts of the West under Justinian (Africa, Italy, southern Spain), but lost them again over the next century to Lombards and Arabs.

Justinian’s reconquest

Under Justinian I (527–565), the Eastern Empire briefly regained control of North Africa, Italy, and parts of Spain, reversing decades of Western losses.

Heraclius’ reforms

During the 7th century, Heraclius reorganized the empire militarily and administratively into themes (military provinces) as a response to Persian and Arab threats.

Eastern Empire after Arab Conquests

 After 632, the Eastern Empire lost Syria, Egypt, and North Africa to Muslim caliphates, shrinking dramatically but surviving as the Byzantine Empire.

3rd century CE (200s)

Bad Century — The 3rd century was marked by civil wars, economic collapse, plagues, and barbarian invasions — known as the Crisis of the Third Century.

4th century CE (300s)

Mixed Century — Stabilized under Diocletian and Constantine, with renewed strength, but religious conflicts (Arianism vs. Trinitarianism) and border threats persisted.

5th century CE

Good East, Bad West — The Western Roman Empire collapsed amid barbarian invasions and internal weakness; the Eastern Roman Empire remained strong under Theodosius II and others.

6th Century CE

Justinian’s Ambitious Century — The East under Justinian launched reconquests, codified Roman law, and built Hagia Sophia — but also faced plague and overextension

7th Century

Crisis in the East — The Persian War (602–628) and Arab conquests devastated the Eastern Empire; the Byzantines lost Syria, Egypt, and other key provinces.

8th century CE:

Survival and Reorganization — Despite losses, the Eastern Empire survived by adopting the theme system and religious reforms, setting the stage for a Byzantine resurgence.