Sociolinguistics Session 5

LING1113

Why is a social class, and how is it defined sociologically?

Karl Marx: Class is based on control of production (working vs capitalist class)

Max Weber: Class also includes lifestyle, life chances, and social behaviours.

Talcott Parsons: Class arises from social participation and interaction.

How is class different from caste in terms of mobility and language?

Class system allows mobility; caste system does not.

Language can shift with upward mobility, though regional features (e.g., vowel quality) often persist.

How can we measure someone’s social class?

-Through occupation, education, income, property, and lifestyle

-These form the basis of socioeconomic classes (SEC’s), useful for sociolinguistic stratification

What does it mean when linguistic variation is stratified?

Stratification means linguistic forms are used more frequently by certain social classes.

it is not deterministic - all groups use all forms to some extent, but frequencies differ consistently.

What is the ‘chicken-and-egg’ problem of linguistic prestige?

Do upper-class speakers define what’s prestigious, or do others imitate their forms to gain prestige?

Answer: It depends on context, age, style, and broader social ideologies.

What is the difference between fine and broad stratification?

Fine Stratification: Small differences between social groups (e.g., within middle classes)

Broad Stratification: Clear, wide linguistic differences between classes (e.g., upper vs. working class).

What is the cross-over effect in sociolingusitics?

Lower middle-class speakers overuse prestigious forms more than the upper middle class, especially in monitored speech

It reflects linguistic insecurity and awareness of class norms.

How does hypercorrection relate to the cross-over effect?

Hypercorrection: overlapping perceived rules, sometimes incorrectly (e.g., Capting instead of captain)

What is ‘change from above’ vs- ‘change from below’`

Change from above: conscious adopting of prestigious forms (often from outside the community)

Change from below: Unconscious, often working-class led innovations that spread upward.

Who tends to lead linguistic change and why?

Lower middle-class and upper working-class speakers often lead change because:

-They are more mobile

-They are conscious of prestige

-They balance access to both upper and working-class norms

What are stable variables and how do they relate to class?

Some linguistic variants (e.g., ing in walking vs. walkin’) persist over time and show consistent class-based patterns.

Higher-status groups prefer standard forms, reinforcing perceived prestige.

What is the social meaning of the cross-over effect?

Labov’s tests showed that lower middle-class speakers are most sensitive to both prestige and stigma.

They are deeply aware of linguistic hierarchies and often drive style-shifting.