Perspectives in Sociology and Research Methods Practice Flashcards

Comprehensive practice vocabulary flashcards covering major sociological perspectives, theories of socialization, types of identity, deviance, and sociological research methodologies.

Structuralism

A school of thought in sociology emphasizing that society is prior to individuals and that human behavior must be understood within the context of the social system or structure.

Interactionism

A microsociological approach, also called the social action approach, which analyzes actions based on the beliefs, norms, and values of the individuals who produce and reproduce social order.

Functionalism

A macro-structuralist and consensus approach that views society as a system of interconnected parts, such as family and education, working together to maintain social equilibrium.

Organic Analogy

A functionalist theory comparing the workings of society to a human body, where both have basic needs that must be met to function smoothly and stay in balance.

Functional Prerequisites

The basic needs identified by functionalists that a society must fulfill to function smoothly, such as law and order, defense, and courts.

Collective Conscience

A concept by Emile Durkheim referring to a common moral order or collective sense of right and wrong that increases social solidarity and unity.

Value Consensus

A state where members of society agree upon and work together to achieve what is best for society as a whole, often maintained through institutions of social control.

Marxism

A conflict theory emphasizing social inequality and the struggle between the bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the proletariat (working class) within a capitalist system.

Bourgeoisie

The ruling class in a capitalist society who own the means of production, such as factories, and exploit the working class for profit.

Proletariat

The working class in a capitalist society who are exploited for their wage labor to produce goods and services.

False Class-consciousness

A Marxist concept where the working class is unaware of the true extent of their exploitation, often due to the influence of institutions like religion and family.

Feminism

A set of structural conflict approaches viewing society as an arena of conflict between men and women, focusing on female oppression and the goal of gender equality.

Patriarchy

A system of power that organizes society into relationships based on the assertion of male supremacy.

Intersectionality

A theory highlighted by Kimberlé Krenshaw suggesting that various forms of oppression, such as racism, classism, and sexism, are interrelated and intersect.

Liberal Feminism

An approach arguing that patriarchy and the sexist division of labor deny women equal opportunities, seeking reform through legislative changes like the Equal Pay Act.

Radical Feminism

A branch of feminism blaming the exploitation of women solely on men and arguing that equality can only be achieved through gender separation.

Marxist Feminism

A theory arguing that women are exploited by both patriarchy and capitalism, serving as a reserve army of labor for the capitalist system.

Post-modern Feminism

An approach aiming to destabilize patriarchal norms by rejecting essentialism and universal truths, focusing on the differences that exist among women.

Socialization

The process describing how individuals are taught the behavioral rules, norms, and values needed to become members of a society.

Primary Socialization

The most intense phase of learning occurring during infancy and childhood, where a child learns fundamental norms like language and manners within the family.

Secondary Socialization

A phase starting when a child enters the education system and continuing throughout life, involving agencies like peer groups, media, and the workplace.

Hidden Curriculum

The informal, unofficial teaching done by schools through classroom rituals and teacher role-modeling that prepares children for the adult world.

Manipulation

A term by Ann Oakley describing how parents encourage activities aligning with a child's gender role and discourage behavior that does not fit.

Canalization

A process where parents channel children into activities deemed appropriate for their gender, such as boys into sports and girls into ballet.

Verbal Appellations

The use of specific words by parents to address children based on gender norms, such as calling boys 'tough' and girls 'pretty'.

Feral Children

Children raised with little or no human contact, used by sociologists to demonstrate that human behavior is learned through socialization rather than instinct.

The 'I' and 'Me'

George Herbert Mead's concept where the 'I' is the unsocialized self (personal opinion) and the 'Me' is the social self (awareness of social expectations).

Looking-glass Self

A concept by Cooley suggesting that our sense of self is a mirror of how we believe others see us during social encounters.

Biogrammars

A term used by Wilson to describe biological programming that suggests humans are likely to behave in particular ways, such as men being aggressive and women being nurturing.

Deviance

Rule-breaking behavior that fails to conform to the norms and expectations of a particular society or social group.

Subculture

Groups within a complex society that possess their own unique value systems different from the wider culture.

Marginalization

The process where individuals or groups are pushed to the fringes of society economically and politically, lowering their sense of belonging and potentially leading to deviance.

Social Identity

The product of an individual's experiences during social interactions that develops a collective or group identity based on roles like gender or class.

Conspicuous Consumption

A term describing the spending of money on luxury items to publicly display one's wealth and individual pursuit of profit or status.

Hegemonic Masculinity

The dominant form of masculinity emphasizing physical strength, leadership, rationality, and being unemotional.

Emphasized Femininity

Traditional female identities defined by passivity, emotionality, and accommodating the interests and needs of men.

Hybrid Identity

An identity created by combining characteristics of multiple cultures, such as 'Brasian' representing a mixture of British and Asian cultures.

Positivism

The sociological perspective that sociology should use the same scientific, quantitative methods as natural sciences to uncover laws governing society.

Interpretivism

A research perspective examining human behavior by assigning meaning to actions, favoring qualitative methods to understand subjective interpretations.

Reliability

The extent to which research can be replicated with the same result by another researcher.

Validity

The extent to which a research method accurately reflects reality or captures the 'true' picture of what is being studied.

Primary Data

Information collected personally by a researcher using methods like questionnaires, interviews, and observations.

Secondary Data

Information that already exists, such as government reports, census data, personal letters, diaries, or previous sociological research.

Quantitative Data

Information expressed numerically in the form of raw numbers, percentages, or rates (e.g., per $1,000$ people).

Qualitative Data

Information that explores the 'why' of behavior, capturing meanings, feelings, and the quality of human experiences.

Content Analysis

A research method used to study texts (TV, documents, etc.) to identify underlying themes and patterns of behavior.

Hawthorne Effect

Changes in a person's behavior resulting directly from their knowledge of being studied by an observer.

Longitudinal Survey

A comparative analysis that involves tracking changes among a representative sample over a significant period of time, from months to years.

Triangulation

The use of multiple research methods, researchers, or techniques to improve the reliability and validity of sociological findings.

Sampling Frame

A complete list of members of a target population, such as a school register or workplace roster, used to select a sample.

Snowball Sampling

A non-representative sampling technique where initial respondents identify other members of the target population to participate in the study.

Pilot Study

A trial run of a research method with a small sample to ensure the design works as intended and to identify potential problems.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle where research participants fully understand the nature of the study and voluntarily agree to participate.