Methods of Research

Flashcards for key vocabulary related to research methods in sociology.

Primary Data

Information collected personally by a researcher through methods like questionnaires, interviews, and observational studies.

Secondary Data

Data that already exists in forms such as documents, government reports, statistics, or previous research.

Official Statistics

Government-generated secondary data on areas like crime, marriage, and employment.

Quantitative Data

Information expressed numerically, capturing the 'who, what, when, and where' of behavior.

Qualitative Data

Non-numeric data that explores the 'why' of people’s behavior, capturing feelings and meanings.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two or more variables that expresses a level of probability.

Hypothesis

A statement put forward by the researcher which is then tested to see whether it is correct.

Participant Observation

A research method where the researcher participates in the behavior they're studying, openly or secretly.

Comparative analysis

Collecting data on one group or society and then comparing them with others to identify conditions that may be causing social events.

Representativeness

Extent to which the characteristics of a sample population accurately reflect those of the target population.

Socially Constructed Statistics

Statistics that are the result of decisions made by people about what to count or measure and how.

Personal Documents

Secondary source of data covering areas such as personal letters, diaries, oral (verbal) histories, websites, social networking sites and photographs.

Questionnaire

A research method consisting of a list of written questions.

Structured Interview

A set of standard questions asked by the researcher of the respondent, similar to a questionnaire but delivered by the researcher.

Researcher Effect

Also called the interviewer effect, this refers to how the relationship between researcher and respondent may bias responses and lead to invalid data.

Variables

Factors that can be changed (manipulated) by the researcher to understand their effect on behavior.

Experimental Group

The subjects of an experiment where the researcher changes different variables to test their effect on behavior. Often compared with a control group.

Control Group

In experiments, a group for which the researcher does not change the variables, so that it can be compared with groups for whom variables have been changed.

Experiment

A research method which follows a set procedure to test a hypothesis.

Causation

The idea that when one action occurs, another always follows because the latter is caused by the former.

Laboratory Experiment

Experiments that take place in an unnatural, closed environment where conditions can be precisely monitored and controlled.

Hawthorne (or observer) effect

Changes in people's behavior that result from their knowledge of being observed.

Content Analysis

Research method used for the systematic analysis of media texts and communications.

Unstructured Interview

Free-form interview method where the aim is to get the respondent to talk, without help (prompting) or interruption, about whatever they feel is important about a topic.

Semi-structured interview

A research method in which a respondent is encouraged to talk at length about a particular subject. Also called focused interviews because the topic is decided by the researcher and is the focus of their questions

Group interviews

Also called focus groups, these involve respondents discussing a topic as a group rather than individually.

Verstehen

Research strategy central to participant observation, which takes advantage of the researcher’s ability to see things from the subject’s viewpoint.

Overt participant observation

When those being studied are aware they are being researched. Contrasted with covert participant observation, which is when those being studied are unaware that they are part of a research project.

Ethnography

The in-depth study of a group or culture, usually involving participant observation and often other methods as well.

Longitudinal study

A form of comparative analysis that involves tracking changes among a representative sample over time.

Methodological pluralism

Combining research methodologies in ways that allow each to complement the other to improve research reliability and validity.

Positivism

The approach within sociology which promotes (advocates) scientific methods to discover facts about the social world.

Interpretivism

The approach within sociology which advocates methods that enable the sociologist to understand the meanings that people attach to their actions.

Triangulation

The use of two or more research methods where the weaknesses of one method, such as a quantitative interview, can be balanced (offset) by the strengths of another, such as qualitative participant observation, to improve overall research reliability and validity.

Value-free

The ability of researchers to prevent their own values (such as personal, political or religious values) from influencing their research.

Sampling

A process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population.

Pilot Study

A small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project

Validity

The extent to which a research method describes or measures what it claims to describe or measure.

Generalize

When the findings of research on a sample can be said to apply to a larger population.

Sampling

A process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population.

Pilot

A small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project

Random Sampling

A sampling technique where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Systematic Sampling

A sampling technique where samples are selected at regular intervals from the population.

Stratified Sampling

A sampling technique where the population is divided into subgroups (strata) and samples are randomly taken from each stratum.

Opportunity Sampling

A sampling technique where samples are selected based on their availability or convenience.

Snowball Sampling

A sampling technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.

Sampling Frame

Process of selecting participants for a study.

Internal Validity

Ensuring the research measures what it intends to measure.

External Validity

The extent to which results can be generalized to other contexts.

Reliability

The consistency of research findings.

Cross-sectional Data

Data collected at one point in time.

Longitudinal Data

Data collected over an extended period to observe changes.

Observer Bias

The researcher's influence on the participants or research outcomes.

Census

Collecting data on an entire population rather than a sample.

Analyzing