the last one thank god

Instinct theory

Genetically predisposed behaviors

This has been replaced by evolutionary perspective

Instincts: involve complex behaviors with fixed, unlearned patterns throughout a species, including imprinting

Drive-reduction theory

Our responses to inner pushes and external pulls

Homeostasis - tendency to maintain a balanced internal state

Incentives - positive or negative environmental stimuli

Needs → drives → drive-reducing behaviorsdisc

Arousal theory

Finding the right level of stimulation

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

The priority of some needs over others

Set point

Point at which the “weight thermostat” is set

Basal metabolic rate: Body’s resting rate of energy output

Settling point: Level at which a person’s weight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure

Eating factors

Impacted by:

• Presence of friends

• Serving size

• Variety

• Nudging nutrition

Testosterone and Estrogens

Testosterone: Present in both sexes but more so in males

Estrogens: Contribute to female sex characteristics, peaking in ovulation

Affiliation need

Need to build and maintain relationships to feel connected to a group

Self-determination theory

We feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

Emotions

Intense, short-lived reactions to specific stimuli

Feelings

Subjective experiences arising from emotions

Moods

Sustained emotional states less intense over a longer period

James-Lange Theory

Arousal comes before emotion

Experience of emotion occurs when we become aware of physiological responses to stimuli

Cannon-Bard Theories

Arousal and emotion occur at the same time

Emotional stimuli simultaneously cause a physiological response and the subjective experience of emotion

Bodily responses run parallel to cognitive responses (sympathetic-parasympathetic systems)

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

Physical reactions and thoughts combine to create emotion

Spillover effect: Arousal spills over from one event to the next, influencing the responses

Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus

Sometimes emotional response takes a neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex and goes directly to the amygdala (Z, Le)

Brain processes a lot of information unconsciously, but mental functioning still takes place (La)

Polygraphs

Arousal detectors, not lie detectors

Facial feedback effect

Facial muscle activation triggers corresponding feelings

Behavior feedback effect

Behavior influences our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions

Five basic emotions

Anger, fear, disgust, sadness, happiness (Carroll Izard found 10)

Happiness set point

Emotions balance around a level defined by experience

Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychodynamic theory

Focuses on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experience

Humanistic theory

Focuses on inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment

Trait theory

Examines characteristic patterns of behavior (traits)

Social-cognitive theory

Explores the interaction between peoples’ traits (including thinking) and their social context

Hippocrates

Personality traits and behaviors are based on four temperaments from the four fluids (humors) of the body

Choleric - yellow bile, liver

Melancholic - black bile, kidney

Sanguine - red blood, heart

Phlegmatic - white phlegm, lungs

Galen

Diseases and personalities can be explained by imbalances in the four humors

Choleric - passionate, ambitious, bold

Melancholic - reserved, anxious, unhappy

Sanguine - joyful, eager, optimistic

Phlegmatic - calm, reliable, thoughtful

Franz Gall

Phrenology - distances between bumps on the skull reveal personality (discredited)

Immanuel Kant

Agreed with Galen, individuals can be categorized into one of the four temperaments

Wilhelm Wundt

Personality falls on two axes: Emotional/non-emotional, changeable/non-changeable

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic method, proposed that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality

Defined the unconscious as a reservoir of unacceptable thoughts and memories

“Free association” - relax and say whatever comes to mind

Id, ego, and superego

Id - unconscious, operates on the pleasure principle for immediate gratification

Ego - conscious, operates on the reality principle for realistic long-term pleasure

Superego - preconscious, internalized ideals and judgements

Identification

Childrens’ superegos gain strength as they incorporate many of the parents’ values into their own

Defense mechanisms

The ego protects itself to reduce and redirect anxiety, repressing thoughts and feelings from the consciousness

• Regression

• Reaction formation

• Projection

• Rationalization

• Displacement

• Denial

Neo-freudians

Accept many of Freud’s basic ideas, but put more emphasis on the conscious mind and doubt that sex and aggression are all-consuming

Alfred Adler

Drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority

Childhood social tensions, not sexual ones, are crucial for identification

Inferiority complex - a feeling of lack of worth

Three fundamental tasks - occupational, societal, love

Carl Jung

Balance conscious and unconscious

Collective unconscious includes shared memories and images from species’ universal experiences

Developed introversion and extroversion ideas

Karen Horney

Childhood anxiety triggers desire for love and security

B.F. Skinner

We learn to behave in certain ways

Personality is shaped by reinforcements and consequences

Projection tests

Roschach inkblot test - analyzes how people interpret 10 inkblots

Thematic apperception test - tell a story using 8-12 cards

Rotter incomplete sentence blank - complete 40 sentences as quickly as possible

Carl Rogers

Linked personality to self-concept, the ideal and the real self

Humanistic

Life story approach

Gordon Allport

Described personality in terms of traits

Clusters:

• Cardinal traits - dominant but rare

• Central - make up personality

• Secondary - less obvious

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Attempt to sort people by Carl Jung’s personality types

Hans and Sybil Eysenck

Personality influenced by genetics

Factor analysis - statistically identify clusters of test items

Two dimensions: Extroversion-introversion, emotional stability-instability

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

Personality inventories

Self-report questionnaires, people respond to true/false questions (MMPI)

Big Five personality factors

• Openness

• Conscientiousness

• Agreeableness

• Extroversion

• Neuroticism

(OCEAN)

Albert Bandura’s Social-Cognitive perspective

Emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of individual difference in personality

Behavior influenced by interaction between peoples’ traits and their social context

Downplays the role of unconscious or biological traits - prioritizes past behavior patterns

Reciprocal determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

• Different people choose different environments

• Personalities shape how people react and interpret events

• Personalities create situations to which people react

Behavior emerges from the interplay of these influences

Self-esteem and self-efficacy

Esteem: Feeling of high or low self-worth (defensive vs. secure)

Efficacy: Sense of competency on a task

Self-serving bias

Readiness to perceive the self favorably

Philippe Pinel

Madness is a sickness of the mind, not demonic possession - requires gentle moral treatment

Vulnerability-stress model

Individual dispositions combine with environmental stressors to influence psychological disorders

Comorbidity

People diagnosed with one disorder are at higher risk for being diagnosed with another disorder (overlapping genes)

DSM-5-TR

Used to guide diagnoses and treatments, pathologize everyday life

Identifies 10 personality disorders and 3 clusters

• Cluster A: Odd thinking, eccentric behavior (paranoid, schizoid)

• Cluster B: Dramatic, erratic behavior (antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic)

• Cluster C: Anxiety and fear (avoidant, dependent, OCD)

Research Domain Criteria proejct

Presents symptoms along a continuum

Mental health problems are common day-to-day

Somatic symptoms

Symptoms take bodily form without apparent physical cause

• Illness anxiety disorder: Person interprets typical physical sensations as symptoms of a disease

Anxious feelings

• Classical conditioning - associate anxiety with certain cues

• Stimulus generalization - fear-provoking event later leads to fear of similar events

• Reinforcement - maintain learned fears and anxieties

Depressive disorders

• Depression: Response to past and current stress

• Major depressive disorder: Hopelessness and lethargy, weeks to months

• Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) - Similar but milder symptoms, 2 years or more

• Bipolar disorders - alternate between depression and hyperactivity

Depressive subtypes

• Seasonal affective disorder: MDD during a particular time of year

• Postpartum depression (peripartum onset) - depression during pregnancy or the four weeks following birth

Diathesis-Stress model

Cognitive vulnerability + stressful life events → depression

Aaron Beck theorized that depression-prone people are predisposed to think negatively

Led to the development of cognitive therapies

Schizophrenia

Delusions - disorganized thinking contrary to reality

Hallucinations - false experiences in the absence of external stimulation

Chronic (process) schiz: Late adolescence or early adulthood, longer episodes and shorter recovery periods

Acute (reactive) schiz: Any age, often response to trauma, recovery more likely

Dissociative identity disorder (DID)

Rare disorder, two or more distinct and alternating identities

Eating disorders

• Anorexia nervosa - starvation diet

• Bulimia nervosa - binge eating followed by weight loss

• Binge-eating disorder - binge-eating followed by guilt/distress, but no weight loss behavior

Tied to genetics

Neurodevelopmental disorders

• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Social and communication deficits, repetitive behavior

• ADHD: Inattention or hyperactivity

Linked to central nervous system