CSD 210 FINAL

ependymal cells

a type of glial cell that lines cavities with CSF

oligodendrocytes

a type of glial cell that provides myelin sheath in the CNS

astrocytes

a type of glial cell that provides nutrients and repairs

microglia

a type of glial cell that cleans up

schwann cells

the only type of glial cell in the PNS; provides myelin sheath

white matter

made up of myelinated fibers (axons)

gray matter

made up of cell bodies

tract

a discrete collection of white fibers (axons)

nucleus

a discrete collection of cell bodies

cortex

an extensive layer of cell bodies

ganglia

groups of nerve cell bodies found in the PNS

corpus callosum

a white matter tract that connects the cerebral hemispheres

gyri

cortical convolutions

fissures/sulci

grooves in the brain

frontal lobe functions

functions include motor control/planning, inhibition, cognitive function, initiation, and speech + language

pre-central gyrus (primary motor cortex)

a part of the frontal lobe; involved in the execution of voluntary movement, has contralateral control, has topographical organization; where the pyramidal tracts originate

premotor cortex

a part of the frontal lobe; involved in the planning of skilled/goal-directed movement; projects to primary motor cortex and brainstem (extra-pyramidal tracts)

supplementary motor area

a part of the frontal lobe; involved in sequencing actions (i.e., speech)

insula

beneath the lateral (Sylvian) fissure of the frontal lobe; relays somatosensory information thats’s important for language and swallowing

parietal lobe functions

functions include spatial organization, perception, sensation, and language comprehension

post central gyrus (primary sensory cortex)

a part of the parietal lobe; involved with the perception of somatic sensation, interpretation, and elaboration of sensory experiences

angular and supramarginal gyri

a part of the parietal lobe; involved with reading and writing in the left hemisphere

temporal lobe functions

functions include auditory processing, learning, and memory

superior temporal gyrus

makes up Wernicke’s area for language comprehension

middle temporal gyrus

involved in auditory comprehension and semantics

limbic system functions

functions include emotion, affect, motivation, drive-related behavior, and memory

association areas

make up a majority of the cerebral hemispheres and have a different cellular make-up than primary motor/sensory areas; organizes information that comes from other parts of the brain, often linked to complex functions

unimodal association areas

are adjacent to primary motor/sensory areas

multimodal association areas

involved in higher mental functions and perception; include the limbic, prefrontal, and parieto-temporal-occipito areas

association fibers

carry information within the same hemisphere; includes the superior longitudinal fasiculus/arcuate fasiculus

commissural fibers

carry information from the opposite hemisphere; includes the corpus callosum and the anterior + posterior commissure

projection fibers

connect the cortex to other areas of the nervous system; include the internal capsule and the corona radiata

basal ganglia

a group of nuclei in the CNS; functions include selecting/initiating motor plans, acquisition of learned and skilled movements, emotion, reward/motivation, addiction, and compulsive behavior

thalamus

the biggest part of the diencephalon, acts as a relay station for information entering the cortex (a part of MANY pathways)

hypothalamus

a part of the diencephalon, regulates hunger, thirst, and temperature through connections with the endocrine and limbic systems

brainstem

contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla; has LMNs for muscles of the head and sensory processing in the head and neck, controls involuntary processes for maintaining homeostasis

morula

the mitotic division of a zygote into a mass of about 12-16 cells

trophoblasts

cube-like cells surrounding an inner cell mass

endoderm

the precursor to organs

mesoderm

the precursor to bones, muscles, and blood

ectoderm

the precursor to skin, eyes, and nervous tissue

notochord

a midline strip of cells between the ectoderm and endoderm; a component of the mesoderm

neural plate

a longitudinal band of ectoderm thickened to form a plate

neural tube

an embryo’s precursor to the CNS; formed through primary + secondary neurulation

primary neurulation

when neural plate cells invaginate + pinch off to form the neural tube

secondary neurulation

when neural plate cells form a cord-like structure that enters the embryo + hollows out to form the neural tube

neuropores

the cranial (rostral) and caudal openings of the neural tube; cranial end closes first

anencephaly

the improper closure of the rostral neuropore

spina bifida

the improper closure of the caudal neuropore

alar plate

a subdivision of gray matter in the neural tube; for sensory processing

basal plate

a subdivision of gray matter in the neural tube; for motor processing

neural/cell proliferation

the generation of neurons

neuroblasts

immature neurons derived from neural stem cells

dura

tough, fibrous, white layer of the meninges; includes the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli

dural sinus

where the layers of the dura separate and form a channel where cerebral veins can empty into

arachnoid

tough but filmy + translucent layer of the meninges; separated from the pia by the subarachnoid space

subarachnoid space

the space between the arachnoid and the pia where external blood vessels run through (can rupture and cause hemorrhage); contains CSF

pia

very thin and fragile layer of the meninges; directly apposed to the brain in most places

collateral circulation

a function of the circle of Willis that allows an alternative supply of blood to be given to a structure if it loses its primary blood supply

thrombus

a stationary blood clot

embolus

a traveling blood clot/ part of a blood clot

resting potential

inside the cell is negative because the cell membrane is leakier to potassium, meaning more positive potassium ions leave the cell

depolarization

first step of action potential; happens when the membrane potential of a cell starts to become more positive

opening of sodium channels

happens during depolarization, causes sodium to rush inside the cell making the cell’s membrane potential move toward 0

opening of potassium channels

as sodium moves inside the cell, potassium moves out, causing the membrane potential to move back towards its resting state

refractory period

a brief period at the end of a voltage change when a cell is hyperpolarized; makes it harder to depolarize cell

tetrodotoxin

blocks sodium channels so the cell membrane can’t depolarize

exocytosis

the release of a neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

termination of neurotransmitters

occurs at the synapse; can either be taken back into the presynaptic neuron (reuptake), and/or degraded/inactivated by enzymes

EPSP

leads to depolarization and possibly action potential (if threshold is met); occurs when sodium or calcium enters the cell; a type of graded potential

IPSP

leads to further negative polarization or no change in membrane potential (no AP); occurs when potassium leaves the cell and serves as a way to suppress excitation

temporal summation

caused by the cumulative effect of EPSPs; when repeated stimuli produce a nerve impulse

spatial summation

caused by the cumulative effect of EPSPs; when stimuli from several locations produce a nerve impulse

ionotropic

the effect of a neurotransmitter (glutamate or acetylcholine) when it attaches to its receptor and immediately opens the ion channels; happens fast and are short lasting

metabotropic

the effect of a neurotransmitter when it attaches to a receptor and initiates a cascade of metabolic processes; are slower and long lasting; can include hunger, fear, thirst, or anger

neuromodulation

the effect of a neurotransmitter (peptides) when it doesn’t excite or inhibit neurons, but instead alters or effects other neurotransmitters

affinity

if a drug binds to the receptor

efficacy

a drug’s tendency to activate the receptor

anterior cavity

the smaller division of the eye containing aqueous humor

posterior cavity

the large, round division of the eye that’s filled with vitreous humor

cornea

part of the eye that’s in charge of refraction

iris

part of the eye that adjusts the amount of light entering the eye

pupil

the hole where light enters the eye

lens

part of the eye that accommodates the image

photoreceptors

a layer of the retina that includes rods and cones; turns photons into an electrical signal vis phototransduction

bipolar cells

a layer of the retina that transmits signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells

retinal ganglion cells

a layer of the retina that transmits signals from the retina to the optic nerve

dorsal stream

“where” stream that processes motion

ventral stream

“what” stream that’s involved in object recognition

amygdala

major emotional processing unit; involved in aggression, involuntary movements, and behaviors including sexual activity; tells you how you see your place in the world

fornix

a white matter tract that connects the limbic system to the brainstem

septal area

a limbic system structure of thin tissue that connects the hypothalamus and the midbrain

medial forebrain bundle

a limbic system structure that connects the basal ganglia to the cortex

IHC

transmits specific afferent information for hearing

OHC

transmits sensitive efferent information; aligns the IHCs to the tectorial membrane to amplify the sound signal

cochlear nucleus

gets information from the ipsilateral cochlea via auditory nerve fibers; where monaural hearing happens

superior olive

picks up bilateral cues from cochlear nucleus for binaural hearing

inferior colliculus

where sound localization occurs

medial geniculate body

the place in the thalamus that sends auditory information to the auditory cortex

reward areas of the brain

include the hypothalamus, septum, amygdala, thalamus, and basal ganglia