History & Systems: Unit 1

Unit 1 Vocab and main ideas

Metaphysics

explores fundamental nature of reality including concepts such as being, the universe, and existence

Metaphysical question

What is real/exists? What is it made of?

Epistemology

Study of human knowledge and belief.

Epistemological question

What do we know? How do we know? Where does knowledge come from?

Metaphysics vs Epistemology

Metaphysics: concerned w reality; Epistemology: concerned w knowledge

Metaphysical Theories

Monism & Dualism

Monism

The universe is made up of one whole; mind and body are one. Includes materialism & idealism.

Materialism

Only physical/material matter exists. Everything, including the mind is part of the physical world

Idealism

Only ideas/the mind exist. Reality is mental

Dualism

Mind & body exist as two separate entities; body material; mind immaterial

Epistemological Theories

Rationalism & Empiricism

Rationalism

Knowledge is innate (already present in mind); Reason & logic

Empiricism

Knowledge is not innate; learned through experiences/senses; “blank slate”

Theories of knowledge and reality

Realism & Nominalism

Realism

General concepts (universals) are real. Ex: perfect circles are real, we just may have not encountered one.

Nominalism

Concepts (universals) are just ideas & names. We create categories in our mind and give them names.

Parmenides ideas

Reality is constant; change is illusion; senses are misleading; trust logic.

Parmenides stances

Dualism, rationalism, realism

Zeno

Supported Parmenides; change is illusion; motion possible; paradoxes

Zeno’s Millet Seed Paradox

One millet seed falls & doesn’t make sound. When a bushel of seeds fall it does make a sound. If a single grain makes 0 sound, then a bushel should also make 0 sound (0+0+0…); Our senses deceive us

Zeno’s stances

Rationalism, monism

Pythagoras

Believed in perfection (think of math); faith in reason; mind can know things senses cannot show (perfect circle)

Pythagoras stances

Rationalism, realism, dualism

Heraclitus

Change is fundamental; reality constantly changing; interactionism (phys world influences mental world through perception)

Heraclitus stances

Dualist, interactionalist

Interactionism

The physical world influences the mental world through perception; we reason to interpret senses; reasonable people have reliable “translators)

Democritus

Atomism —> constant changes; emanation theory

Democritus stances

Materialist monist, empiricist, determinism

Emanation theory

Objects give off tiny images of selves (eidola) that travel through aether, then received by the mind; Mind recognizes/stores them. Perception = movement of mind atoms

Determinism

Atoms don’t move on their own; everything happens for a reason; cause-effect; no mind atom movement w/o stimulation from eidola.

Protagoras

True nature of world cannot be known; knowledge from senses; truth subjective; no perfect higher reality

Protagoras stances

Empiricism, relativism

Socrates

Conceptual reasoning; problem of universals

Problem of universals

Particulars: individual things; Universals: general concepts/ideas; do universals exist in reality or are they just words we use to group similar things together

Socrates stances

Dualism, rationalism

Plato

Theory of forms, reminiscence theory, perfect vs imperfect

Plato stances

Dualist, realist, rationalist

Plato’s Theory of Forms

2 realms: Physical- senses, imperfect things, flawed manifestations of perfect forms; Ethereal- higher realm, true forms (perfect circle, absolute beauty)

Plato’s Reminiscence theory

Senses provide distorted versions of reality. We have innate knowledge of perfection through psyche/soul & forms. Encountering (perceiving) physical things trigger anamnesis- recollection of innate knowledge. Top-down processing; senses play passive role; prompt rather than generate knowledge.

Plato’s Allegory of the Cave

Prisoners in a cave think shadows are real things, when in reality, the sunlight causes the shadows. Demonstrates fallibility of senses; cannot always trust them; physical world is just shadow of higher reality.

Aristotle

Empiricism; importance of science & observation; Induction

Deduction vs induction

Deduction: general →particular, general rule to specific case (ex: All mammals have lungs →Dolphins are mammals →Dolphins have lungs); Top-down. Induction: particular → general; observe individual event →develop general conclusion; bottom-up.

Neoplatonism

From Plato’s rationalism & ethereal realm. Mind & soul → path to wisdom; senses not; Plotinus; St. Paul

Plotinus: Hierarchy of creation

The one: perfection, god, perfection emanates (overflows) down → Nous/mind: perfect idea/archetypes of everything that exists → The psyche (soul): bridges spiritual world to physical one → Physical world: most distant/imperfect

Scholasticism

Aristotle’s influence. Born blank state w potential for knowledge, Avicenna.sensory info w common sense together. Retentive (STM)& Compositive imagination (association)

Avicenna

Sensory info is combined in the Common Sense. Retentive (STM)& Compositive imagination (association; Law of association). Estimative power: innate ability to judge ideas

Problem of Universals

Do universes (concepts) exist outside out minds? Ex: what makes a Pitbull, Great Dane, and Chihuahua all “dogs”?

Nominalism- Ockham’s razor

The simplest explanation is usually the best; universals do not need to exist to explain existence of ideas

Problem of Universals views

Nominalism, exaggerated realism, moderate realism

Exaggerated realism

Universals real. Their own entities, ind of our ideas or other objects; Do NOT need physical objects to exist. Plato’s theory of realms- forms are universals

Moderate realism

Universals exist. NOT as independent things; no abstract realm; St. Thomas Aquinas

St. Thomas Aquinas

Universals define the essence (qualities) of things. Ex: Universal nature of a horse exists in every horse.

Aquinas- Essential vs particular qualities

Essential (what makes something what it is; ex: being a dog)& particular qualities (what makes something dif from the rest in their universal; ex: Chihuahua small, Great Dane large) depend on each other

Galileo

Scientific reasist/Platonist; primary vs secondary qualities; Dualism regarding physical world and perception (not mind-body); natural philosophy

Qualia: primary

Actual properties: physical; correspond to essence. Ex: shape, motion, reflectance, vibration, chemical composition

Qualia: secondary

Properties we perceive (think of Aquina’s particulars). Ex: perceived shape/motion, color, sound, taste.

Descartes

Rationalist, veil of perception, brain in vat, “I think therefore I am (thinking proves that you exist), interactionism, two-substance theory, mechanistic interaction; mind-body dualism

Brain in a vat

Your brain is in a container and given signals that make you experience everything that you normally do. Stimulated vs actual reality; questions sensory experience; theories based on senses not good bc senses can fool you

Descartes: Veil of perception

Our perceptions may stand between us & reality. We don’t experience reality directly, we experience perception of reality

Solipsism

Only our mind is certain to exist

Interactionism

Mind & body separate but must interact: mind controls body & body informs mind; Two-substance theory

Descartes: Two-substance theory

Mind: non-spatial & immaterial, perfect, realm of truth; Body: exists in 3 dimensions, material, determined by physical laws, imperfect, realm of action; Mind & body still interact

Descartes: Mechanistic interaction

Body works like a machine. Animal spirits flow through brain & allow body to move; mind makes movements in pineal gland (seat of consciousness/ghost in machine) that animal spirits amplified → body movement

Spinoza

Single-substance/ double aspectism, pantheism (god in everything), determinism (cause-effect), no free-will

Spinoza: Double-aspectism/ Single-substance theory

Mind & body two sides of same coin: different aspects of the same substance; Do not interact, just reflect casual force: God → pantheism

Leibniz

Single-substance dualism. Monads= living energy that makes up reality; alive and conscious (simple monads very vaguely- objects); Mind & body made of dif monads; Hierarchy: God (supreme) → mind (human/rational) → Animal-mind (sentient) → physical matter (objects)

Parallelism

Mind & body work in perfect harmony; separate but synchronized

Hobbes

Materialism: mind physical; more mechanistic; Epiphenomenalism: physical brain processes cause mental states, but not other way around

Hobbes: Materialism

Mind as motions in brain; cause & effect (determinism); reductionism (every though is result of mechanical event)

John Locke

Empiricism; “blank slate”; born with no knowledge; knowledge begins w sensation (secondary qualities)

Locke: Theory of ideas

Sensations cause simple ideas (size, color, tail, snout); Combine simple ideas to form complex ones (German Shephard); bottom-up

Associationism

Learning= forming associations between ideas; new associations → new knowledge. Simple ideas do not need associations; Hartley, Mill, Bain

Hartley

Connects associationism to materialism. Sensations/simple ideas = verve vibrations (vibratiuncles); Law of association; law of contiguity

Hartley: Law of Associations vs Contiguity

LOA: associations occur when vibratiuncles resonate together. LOC: ideas that occur together become associated.

James Mill

Mental physics: complex idea = sum of simple ideas; strength rely on vividness & frequency

J.S. Mill

Associationism; Mental chemistry: complex ideas are not just sum of simple ideas. Can form new complex ideas (H and O combine to form something completely new: water; has different properties)

Alexander Bain

Associationism; Law of compound association & law of constructive association

Bain: Law of compound association

Single ideas rarely link in isolation. Instead, lots of compound memories tied to an experience. When you experience some of the elements, it triggers recall of entire cluster (you see a dog and think of many dog breeds)

Bain: Law of constructive association

Mind actively breaks apart & synthesizes memories/experiences to make new complex ideas; imagination, creativity, innovation, problem-solving

Berkeley

Metaphysical idealism/materialism. Physical properties do NOT exist independently of perception. Only secondary qualities exist; god is ultimate perceiver, so reality continues to exist; distance is idea in mind rather than something given directly by perception

Hume

Nominalism; Skepticism: further than empiricism; skeptic about ultimate perceiver, causality, continuity of external reality

Hume: Causality

We observe sequence of events, NOT necessarily the cause of an event; “necessary connection” is mental construct; Ideas through association, repetition, & mental habit

Reid’s Common Sense

Disagree w skepticism. We are directly aware of real objects in world. Problem is mental representation. Saying there is a tree means there actually is one outside of our minds

Locke: Indirect perception

Knowledge begins with meaningless sensations (simple ideas) → meaning reconstructed in mind (bottom-up; associationism)

Reid: Direct perception

Mind directly aware of real objects

Positivism

Genuine knowledge comes from logical analysis & empirical evidence; objectivity; universal laws; no metaphysics; Comte & Mach

Auguste Comte

Empiricism in science. 3 ways of knowing: theological, metaphysical, positive; AVOID theolog & metaphys; physics as fundamental science

Mach: Positivism

Berkeley & Hume; sensations = objects of observation; if can’t be observed can’t say it’s real; Science as study of ideas & sensations; Psych as fundamental science