PSYC 101 - final (Schachner)

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155 Terms

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attachment

close, enduring emotional bond to parents/caregiver

necessary for normal social & emotional dvlpt

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1940s parenting style

professional advice dominated by behaviorism:

  • reward/punishment shapes behavior

  • feed them on a schedule

  • let them cry

  • social contact is not important, can be dangerous

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Dr. Benjamin Spock (1904-1998)

stood against behaviorist parenting:

  • do what feels right for you as a parent

  • emotional relationship between parent and child are important

  • children need to feel loved

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pre-1950s mainstream parenting views

adequate nutritional care is all that’s needed for normal dvlpt, little to no emphasis on emotional care

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harlow’s monkey studies

harry harlow (1905-1981)

challenged behaviorist view that biological needs are primary

expt: food or security - baby rhesus monkeys given a cloth (fuzzy/soft) vs wire mother (hard metal)

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harlow’s monkey studies - results

monkeys fed by wire mothers: monkeys spent more time with cloth mother

monkeys fed by cloth mothers: monkeys spent more time with cloth mothers

monkeys spent majority of time with cloth mother regardless of if this mother fed them

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rhesus monkey expt - secure vs insecure exploration

cloth mother was treated as a source of comfort and security —> secure vs insecure exploration

if raised w wire mother: don’t explore, just scared

if raised w cloth mother: ran to cloth mother for comfort first then explore room

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rhesus monkeys + wire mother expt 2

monkeys w only a wire mother exhibited extremely abnormal social and emotional behavior as adults

had excessive and misdirected aggression, stereotyped motor behavior, lack of interest in sexual behavior, neglect/abused offspring

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human separation from parents/caregivers

ie. migrant children

separating families has long-term damaging psychological and health consequences for children, families, communities

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separating families in 1937-1943 in US & EU (early observations)

more children withdrawn & isolated, overactive, distractible, abusive to others, lacked feeling for others, abnormal social behavior

by adolescence —> history of stealing, violence, and sexual dismeanors

ww2: many orphaned children/separated from parents, placed in institutions —> physical care but no social care and no stable/reliable caregiver

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john bowlby (1907-1990)

british psychologist

saw: children in institutions separated from parents = listless, depressed, emotionally disturbed, felt empty, unable to dvlp normal emotional relationships

led to policy changes allowing parents hospital visitation + shift from orphanages to foster care

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1980s: children in romanian orphanages

1966: romania outlawed abortion and contraception access to boost country pop., led to huge wealth disparities and increased maternal mortality and increased kids in orphanages

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charles nelson on impact of institutionalization

romania’s abandoned children: put ½ in foster care and those had 30 pt IQ increase from those in institution

institutionalized kids had perturbed intellect, social & emotional dvlpt

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rené spitz: 1946-1948 expt

austrian psychoanalyst & physician - prison and separation

old belief: kid remaining in prison with “felon mother” will become a felon

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in orphanage vs in prison w mom

by 1 y/o: 25% kids in orphan died, avg IQ = 72 vs in prison w/ mom no kids died and avg IQ = 105

by 2 y/o: 37% kids in orphan died vs 0 died in mom’s care

in orphan, 2 y/o: 5/21 walked unassisted, 1/21 spoke at least 12 words, 3/21 had normal weight

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bottom line about separating families

lack of stability in caregiver = negative impact

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theories of attachment - freud

mother-child relationship serves to satisfy physical and psychosexual drives

saw infants as needy/dependent, motivated by drive reduction

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theories of attachment - bowlby

mother-child (caregiver-child) relationship = important in its own right, don’t serve as any drive to satisfy

saw infants as competence-motivated, use primary caregiver as a secure base for exploration & learning

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bowlby’s “internal working model” of attachment

enduring emotional tie between child and primary caregiver

child develops “internal working model” of attachment —> mental representation of self, caregivers, & how relationships work, affects expectations about relationships throughout lifespan

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bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - preattachment

birth - 6 wks: infant produces innate signals (ie. crying) that bring caregiver, interaction = comforting

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bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - attachment-in-the-making

6 wks - 6-8 mo: begin attending preferentially to familiar ppl, esp primary caregiver (smiling in response to them)

infants learn whether or no caregiver is trustworthy

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bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - clear-cut attachment

6-8 mo - 1.5-2 yrs: actively seek comfort from parent/caregiver

xp distress at parting and happiness at reunion (separation anxiety)

parent/primary caregiver now serves as secure base

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bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - reciprocal relationships

1.5-2 y/o and on: increasing abilities to organize efforts to be near parent/caregiver

separation distress declines

child actively creates reciprocal relationship w parent/caregivers

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bowlby’s attachment theory

attachment process = rooted in evolution

innate basis (ie. need for attachment)

BUT quality of attachment highly dependent on infants’ xp w caregivers

ie. Konrad Lorenz w ducks imprinting on him

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strange situation - mary ainsworth expt

expt: child put thru series of “episodes” involving repeated separations and reunions w caregiver, observe patterns of behavior thought to reflect differences in attachment quality

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strange situation - attachment style criteria

active play and exploration in caregiver’s presence

preference for caregiver vs stranger for comfort

behavior of infant during reunions: if distressed —> seek caregiver? caregiver calms infant?

if not distressed —> infant greet caregiver w positive emotion? absence of anger, resentment, or withholding contact

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attachment categories - securely attached

effectively use parent as secure base, some distress when parent leaves, happy when parent returns

about 60% middle-class kids, less in lower SES grps

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attachment categories - insecure/resistant

aka. anxious-ambivalent

child is clingy/explores less, very upset when parent leaves (uncontrollable crying), child seeks contact when parent returns but resists efforts at comfort

about 10% of middle-class kids in US

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attachment categories - insecure/avoidant

child is indifferent to parent before separation, behaves similarly to parent and stranger, doesn’t greet parent upon return

about 15% of middle-class kids in US

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attachment categories - disorganized/disoriented

child shows no consistent way of coping, confused facial expressions (ie. stress, fear, dazed), appears to want to approach parent but fears doing so

most negative in terms of all types

15% of middle-class kids in US, higher in low-SES, higher in maltreated infants

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long-term effects of secure attachment

2-3 y/o: better problem solving, more complex creative play, more positive emotions, fewer negative emotions

11-15 y/o: better social skills, better peer relations, more likely have more close friends

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long-term effects of insecure attachment

2-3 y/o: more socially/emotionally withdrawn, hesitant to initiate play w others, less curious/interested in learning

11-15 y/o: poor peer relations, fewer close friendships, greater likelihood of disruptive behaviors and psychopathological symptoms

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causes of individual differences in attachment?

twin/adoption studies suggest no/very small, heritable component, in adolescence = more heritable —> not genetics

mostly differences in parenting —> xp

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parental sensitivity

noticing child’s signals, interpreting them correctly, responding consistently

most important in determining quality of parent-child attachment

only 38% of infants w “insensitive” parents are securely attached

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parental of securely attached infants

accurately read infants’ signals, respond consistently

have many positive exchanges (contingent interactions, coordinated play)

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parental of insecure/resistant infants

respond inconsistently to infants’ distress, be anxious, overwhelmed

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parental of insecure/avoidant infants

be indifferent and emotionally unavailable, may reject infant’s efforts to cuddle

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van den Boom (1994) - parenting and attachment study

expt: followed a group of infants at risk for insecure attachments (born more irritable)

6 mo after birth, randomly chose ½ of moms to receive intervention for 3 mo

intervention - training on how to recognize infants’ cues, respond, and promote positive exchanges

ctrl group - no training

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van den Boom (1994) - parenting and attachment study results

intervention worked —> parents showed more sensitive behavior:

rates of secure attachment increased, 62% in intervention grp vs 22% in control

effects were relatively long-lasting:

rates of secure attachment 1 yr later (18 mo): 72% in intervention, 26% in control

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other determinants of attachment not parenting

differences in temperament make it more difficult for parents of some infants to maintain sensitivity —> affect attachment

genes may affect how sensitive infant is to caregiving, differential susceptibility

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day care - good/bad?

daycare is fine (Eret et al, 2000) (NICHD study, 1997):

children who attend quality child care have the same (or better) outcomes as children cared for at home

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attachment parenting

NOT same as attachment:

attachment parenting can be very extreme, ie. nursing child until very old

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importance of identity and values - writing intervention expt

expt: brief “value affirmation” intervention (writing essay about your values and why they’re important to you) can improve performance and lessen performance “gaps”

results: control = no essay, women exam score is lower than men bc don’t believe belong in physics class, tx = essay, women exam score is comparable to men’s

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basic aspects of “self” - self-concepts

physical being (ie. i have a body), internal/mental characteristics (ie. i have beliefs, values, personality traits), social characteristics (ie. social roles/relationships)

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self-concepts in infancy: 3-5 mo/8 mo

3-5 mo: evidence of some understanding of physical self, detect when own movements control an obj (balloon tied to wrist)

8 mo: separation anxiety, sign of developing awareness of self and others

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rochat & morgan, 1995 - infant self-concepts

look longer at “flipped” video of own legs vs correct orientation —> some recognition of body

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mirror test - self-concept

tests self-concept: do we recognize ourselves?

many species show no awareness of self in the mirror (ie. dog/cats, mirrors = extensions of the world)

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the mirror task - lewis & brooks-gunn, 1979

aka the “Rouge task”

expt: w/o kid knowing, put red mark/sticker on their head

results: prior to 18 mo will look behind mirror for other kid/don’t know, after 18 mo will link image in mirror to self and touch mark on their head

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species that pass mirror test

chimps, bonobos, orangutans, elephants, killer whales, magpies, etc

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evidence of advancement in self concepts at 2 y/o

2-2.5 y/o: children recognize themselves in photos, use pronouns in language (me vs you, mine), show complex emotions (embarassment, pride, shame, guilt - require a sense of self)

“terrible twos” - understand i have my own goals, different from yours, time for self-assertion

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susan harter, 2012 - sense of self study

children’s emerging sense of self is largely a social construction, based on observations of how one is treated & evaluated by others

study: interviewed lots of children on who they are, created composite statements

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composite statements

most common ideas, provide representative type of description given by kids at each age

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harter, 2012 - 3-4 y/o describe themselves

self-concept focuses on concrete observable characteristics (i am great)

activities and abilities (i can count)

basic psychological traits (happy)

unrealistically positive

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harter, 2012 - 8-11 y/o describe themselves

social comparison plays a big role (focus on others’ evaluations/place in social network)

more nuanced concepts of traits (smart at some things, not at others)

more realistic (and less positive)

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harter, 2012 - 11-13 y/o describe themselves

even more abstract self-descriptions (extrovert)

understand that self can differ depending on context (1 way w friends vs w family)

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personal fable

form of egocentrism, belief that my feelings and xp are unique, special, weird, not shared by others

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the spotlight effect

belief/worry about others’ judgements: imaginary audience focused on self

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gilovich, medvec & savitsky, 2000 - spotlight effect

expt: wear an embarrassing t shirt to class and ask wearer how many ppl they think noticed vs survey how many ppl actually noticed

results: way less ppl actually noticed vs what was predicted

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15 y/o composite answer of self-description

introspective, concerned w apparent contradictions (ie. searching feeling, conflict w/in self, multiple parts of identities that don’t go together)

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18 y/o composite answer of self-description

more integrated, less concerned w what others think, focus on personal values and beliefs (coming to an understanding)

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erik erikson’s theory of identity formation

ea stage of dvlpt has its own crisis/issue that individual must resolve

adolescence/early adulthood = crisis of identity (vs role confusion), must figure out “who you really are”

need psychosocial moratorium

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psychosocial moratorium

need a “time out” in adolescence to explore options and form identity (ie. college)

period where you explore different roles/identities w/o making long-term commitments

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erikson’s identity status categories - identity diffusion

no firm identity commitments, and not exploring options (most young adolescents)

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erikson’s identity status categories - foreclosure

commitment to identity w/o exploration, based on values of others (most young adults)

erikson judged negatively but now know not necessarily

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erikson’s identity status categories - moratorium

exploring choices, not yet committed (common at 17-19 y/o)

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erikson’s identity status categories - identity achievement

coherent, stable identity seen as based on personal choices

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james marcia (1980) - study of identity status categories

used interview methods to classify ppl

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identity status related to well being?

yes! ppl who are committed to an identity tend to be higher in well-being, self-esteem, emotional stability

true whether attained through foreclosure or exploration

work was done in western societies though, need more studies to generalize to every culture

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race

categorization of ppl into groups by/within a given society, in part based on physical characteristics

typically thought of as something you inherit, but is a social construct w/o biological meaning

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ethnicity

cultural expression and cultural identification of ppl, including customs, history, language, religion, etc

is something you learn

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ethnic identity

an individ’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group

extent to which an individ attributes their thoughts, feelings, and behavior to their membership in an ethnic group

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dvlpt of ethnic identity - early school yrs

ethnic identity dvlps gradually

early school yrs, ethnic-minority children:

know the common characteristics of ethnic grp, start to have feelings about being members of grp, may have begun forming ethnically based preferences (± depends on social group)

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dvlpt of ethnic identity - 5-8 y/o

children tend to identify themselves w their ethnic group, begin to understand their ethnicity as unchanging and stable

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some individuals have stronger feelings of ethnic identity than others

kids of ethnic minorities explore their ethnic identity more than majority-group kids (white ppl may not think to explore racial identity vs minority ppl)

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children of ethnic minority

greater challenges regarding ethnic identity:

culture clash btwn values of ethnic grp vs majority culture

growing awareness of discrimination throughout dvlpt

internalization of ethnic stereotypes (even negative ones)

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steele & aronson, 1995 - ethnic identity study & stereotype threat

stereotype threat - when told stereotype, activates to enforce that stereotype

expt: give Blacks and Whites a test, tx = telling them the test is diagnostic of intellectual ability or not

results: when told, Blacks do worse bc stereotype threat, when not told, Blacks did better than Whites

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hawaii vs mainland US - study of differences in which group is minority/majority (Xu, Farver & Pauker, 2015)

asian americans = numeric minority in mainland US but majority in hawaii

european americans = majority in mainland US but minority in Hawaii

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hawaii vs mainland US - study results (Xu, Farver & Pauker, 2015)

result: ethnic identity is linked w self-esteem if you are a numerical minority group, strength of ethnic identity predicts self-esteem

if are majority, 2 things aren’t related

implication: important for parents, community leaders, teachers, etc to support dvlpt of minority ethnic identity

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dvlpt of prejudice in kids - don’t mention race?

not true, kids learn prejudice from non-verbal behavior too and other sources (ie. TV, peers, teachers, etc)

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The Clark Doll test (1940s)

expt: gave Black children identical dolls that only differed in if they were Black or White and asked them which doll was ugly, which is most like you, etc

results: 3 y/o - have internalized racial stereotypes even against own group, often said the Black dolls had the negative attributes

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The Clark Doll test (1940s) - impact

internalization of negative stereotypes = stronger for children attending segregated schools in DC vs integrated ones in NY

1954 - Brown v Board of Ed: helped persuade SCOTUS that “separate but equal” schools for Black and White children weren’t equal, ended segregation

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basis of children’s prejudice - s. africa test case

in s africa: majority of population = Black (Xhosa) but Black pop has lower social status compared to White

results: by 4 y/o: Black children in S Africa show social preference that track w social status, young children reason about the status of ethnic groups

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preventing dvlpt of prejudice

role for children’s media: positive representation matters (sesame street = first efforts to increase this)

US children’s media has greater positive representation of underrep groups (ie. doc mcstuffins, dora, turning red)

recommend parents/caregivers/siblings: talk to young children openly about race, ethnicity, prejudice

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age self-recognition dvlps

1.5-2 y/o + dvlpt of complex emotions that reflect developing sense of self and other

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emotion - 4 components

transient subjective feelings (ie. fear, elation, is temporary vs emotion is not)

physiological correlates (adrenaline, HR)

thoughts that accompany feelings (how to escape/approach)

desire to take action (fight/flight)

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darwin’s theory of emotions

human emotions = based on limited set of basic emotions that are universal across human cultures

direct link btwn inner emotional states (feelings) and facial expressions

links are innate, found in young babies

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functions of emotions

promote survival - negative emotions help you avoid harmful things and positive ones help you approach things that are good for you

motivate action - w/o emotions, wouldn’t act (arguable, fight/flight)

communicate - for babies: motivate caregiver to act

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functionalist approach - reason for disgust

goal: avoid contamination/illness

action: prevent substances from entering body/coming into close contact w body

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functionalist approach - reason for fear

goal: maintain integrity of self

action: engage in behaviors (flight/withdrawal) that enable us to avoid danger, monitor danger, escape from danger

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functionalist approach - reason for anger

goal: any end state that child wants

action: communicate desires or display power/dominance

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functionalist approach - reason for sadness

goal: any end state that child wants

action: conserve energy by disengaging/withdrawing

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undifferentiated emotions theory (sroufe, 1979, 1995)

early emotions not distinct, by this theory: we start w 2 dimensions of emotional xp (high arousal vs low arousal & positive vs negative feeling

xp pulls apart these simple emotions into more complex forms (4 quadrant graph)

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discrete emotion theory (carroll izard)

emotions are innate

ea emotion = qualitatively different & associated w a diff set of bodily/facial reactions

emotions are distinct - even early in life

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indexing infant emotion: facial expressions

are easily identified/distinguished from one another

expressed through consistent facial postures

one indication of internal feelings

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FACS - facial action coding system

system to categorize human facial movements by their appearance on the face

ea emotion corresponds to distinct muscle combo

facial expressions as a window to underlying emotion

dvlped by Paul Ekman (1978)

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baby FACS/AFFEX

successful at coding most emotional expressions in babies

babies = more difficult to code than adult’s bc baby fat hides musculature involved, infant’s expressions are less differentiated

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dvlpt of facial expressions @ 6-7 mo

6 basic emotions: joy, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise, fear (only at about 7 mo and up)

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dvlpt of positive emotions in babies

1 mo: no real smiling

2-3 mo: social smiles, smile when controlling an event

about 5 mo: laughter, infants’ positive emotional responses strengthen parent-infant interaction

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dvlpt of negative emotions in babies

newborns: present but hard to differentiate

2 mo: expressions for anger and sadness distinct from distress/pain

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dvlpt of fear: stranger anxiety

6-7 mo - 2 y/o:

reflects strengthening attachment to parents

increases over time until about 2, then fades

occurs cross-culturally

evolutionarily adaptive? (elicits help from parents)