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attachment
close, enduring emotional bond to parents/caregiver
necessary for normal social & emotional dvlpt
1940s parenting style
professional advice dominated by behaviorism:
reward/punishment shapes behavior
feed them on a schedule
let them cry
social contact is not important, can be dangerous
Dr. Benjamin Spock (1904-1998)
stood against behaviorist parenting:
do what feels right for you as a parent
emotional relationship between parent and child are important
children need to feel loved
pre-1950s mainstream parenting views
adequate nutritional care is all that’s needed for normal dvlpt, little to no emphasis on emotional care
harlow’s monkey studies
harry harlow (1905-1981)
challenged behaviorist view that biological needs are primary
expt: food or security - baby rhesus monkeys given a cloth (fuzzy/soft) vs wire mother (hard metal)
harlow’s monkey studies - results
monkeys fed by wire mothers: monkeys spent more time with cloth mother
monkeys fed by cloth mothers: monkeys spent more time with cloth mothers
monkeys spent majority of time with cloth mother regardless of if this mother fed them
rhesus monkey expt - secure vs insecure exploration
cloth mother was treated as a source of comfort and security —> secure vs insecure exploration
if raised w wire mother: don’t explore, just scared
if raised w cloth mother: ran to cloth mother for comfort first then explore room
rhesus monkeys + wire mother expt 2
monkeys w only a wire mother exhibited extremely abnormal social and emotional behavior as adults
had excessive and misdirected aggression, stereotyped motor behavior, lack of interest in sexual behavior, neglect/abused offspring
human separation from parents/caregivers
ie. migrant children
separating families has long-term damaging psychological and health consequences for children, families, communities
separating families in 1937-1943 in US & EU (early observations)
more children withdrawn & isolated, overactive, distractible, abusive to others, lacked feeling for others, abnormal social behavior
by adolescence —> history of stealing, violence, and sexual dismeanors
ww2: many orphaned children/separated from parents, placed in institutions —> physical care but no social care and no stable/reliable caregiver
john bowlby (1907-1990)
british psychologist
saw: children in institutions separated from parents = listless, depressed, emotionally disturbed, felt empty, unable to dvlp normal emotional relationships
led to policy changes allowing parents hospital visitation + shift from orphanages to foster care
1980s: children in romanian orphanages
1966: romania outlawed abortion and contraception access to boost country pop., led to huge wealth disparities and increased maternal mortality and increased kids in orphanages
charles nelson on impact of institutionalization
romania’s abandoned children: put ½ in foster care and those had 30 pt IQ increase from those in institution
institutionalized kids had perturbed intellect, social & emotional dvlpt
rené spitz: 1946-1948 expt
austrian psychoanalyst & physician - prison and separation
old belief: kid remaining in prison with “felon mother” will become a felon
in orphanage vs in prison w mom
by 1 y/o: 25% kids in orphan died, avg IQ = 72 vs in prison w/ mom no kids died and avg IQ = 105
by 2 y/o: 37% kids in orphan died vs 0 died in mom’s care
in orphan, 2 y/o: 5/21 walked unassisted, 1/21 spoke at least 12 words, 3/21 had normal weight
bottom line about separating families
lack of stability in caregiver = negative impact
theories of attachment - freud
mother-child relationship serves to satisfy physical and psychosexual drives
saw infants as needy/dependent, motivated by drive reduction
theories of attachment - bowlby
mother-child (caregiver-child) relationship = important in its own right, don’t serve as any drive to satisfy
saw infants as competence-motivated, use primary caregiver as a secure base for exploration & learning
bowlby’s “internal working model” of attachment
enduring emotional tie between child and primary caregiver
child develops “internal working model” of attachment —> mental representation of self, caregivers, & how relationships work, affects expectations about relationships throughout lifespan
bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - preattachment
birth - 6 wks: infant produces innate signals (ie. crying) that bring caregiver, interaction = comforting
bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - attachment-in-the-making
6 wks - 6-8 mo: begin attending preferentially to familiar ppl, esp primary caregiver (smiling in response to them)
infants learn whether or no caregiver is trustworthy
bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - clear-cut attachment
6-8 mo - 1.5-2 yrs: actively seek comfort from parent/caregiver
xp distress at parting and happiness at reunion (separation anxiety)
parent/primary caregiver now serves as secure base
bowlby’s 4 phases of attachment development - reciprocal relationships
1.5-2 y/o and on: increasing abilities to organize efforts to be near parent/caregiver
separation distress declines
child actively creates reciprocal relationship w parent/caregivers
bowlby’s attachment theory
attachment process = rooted in evolution
innate basis (ie. need for attachment)
BUT quality of attachment highly dependent on infants’ xp w caregivers
ie. Konrad Lorenz w ducks imprinting on him
strange situation - mary ainsworth expt
expt: child put thru series of “episodes” involving repeated separations and reunions w caregiver, observe patterns of behavior thought to reflect differences in attachment quality
strange situation - attachment style criteria
active play and exploration in caregiver’s presence
preference for caregiver vs stranger for comfort
behavior of infant during reunions: if distressed —> seek caregiver? caregiver calms infant?
if not distressed —> infant greet caregiver w positive emotion? absence of anger, resentment, or withholding contact
attachment categories - securely attached
effectively use parent as secure base, some distress when parent leaves, happy when parent returns
about 60% middle-class kids, less in lower SES grps
attachment categories - insecure/resistant
aka. anxious-ambivalent
child is clingy/explores less, very upset when parent leaves (uncontrollable crying), child seeks contact when parent returns but resists efforts at comfort
about 10% of middle-class kids in US
attachment categories - insecure/avoidant
child is indifferent to parent before separation, behaves similarly to parent and stranger, doesn’t greet parent upon return
about 15% of middle-class kids in US
attachment categories - disorganized/disoriented
child shows no consistent way of coping, confused facial expressions (ie. stress, fear, dazed), appears to want to approach parent but fears doing so
most negative in terms of all types
15% of middle-class kids in US, higher in low-SES, higher in maltreated infants
long-term effects of secure attachment
2-3 y/o: better problem solving, more complex creative play, more positive emotions, fewer negative emotions
11-15 y/o: better social skills, better peer relations, more likely have more close friends
long-term effects of insecure attachment
2-3 y/o: more socially/emotionally withdrawn, hesitant to initiate play w others, less curious/interested in learning
11-15 y/o: poor peer relations, fewer close friendships, greater likelihood of disruptive behaviors and psychopathological symptoms
causes of individual differences in attachment?
twin/adoption studies suggest no/very small, heritable component, in adolescence = more heritable —> not genetics
mostly differences in parenting —> xp
parental sensitivity
noticing child’s signals, interpreting them correctly, responding consistently
most important in determining quality of parent-child attachment
only 38% of infants w “insensitive” parents are securely attached
parental of securely attached infants
accurately read infants’ signals, respond consistently
have many positive exchanges (contingent interactions, coordinated play)
parental of insecure/resistant infants
respond inconsistently to infants’ distress, be anxious, overwhelmed
parental of insecure/avoidant infants
be indifferent and emotionally unavailable, may reject infant’s efforts to cuddle
van den Boom (1994) - parenting and attachment study
expt: followed a group of infants at risk for insecure attachments (born more irritable)
6 mo after birth, randomly chose ½ of moms to receive intervention for 3 mo
intervention - training on how to recognize infants’ cues, respond, and promote positive exchanges
ctrl group - no training
van den Boom (1994) - parenting and attachment study results
intervention worked —> parents showed more sensitive behavior:
rates of secure attachment increased, 62% in intervention grp vs 22% in control
effects were relatively long-lasting:
rates of secure attachment 1 yr later (18 mo): 72% in intervention, 26% in control
other determinants of attachment not parenting
differences in temperament make it more difficult for parents of some infants to maintain sensitivity —> affect attachment
genes may affect how sensitive infant is to caregiving, differential susceptibility
day care - good/bad?
daycare is fine (Eret et al, 2000) (NICHD study, 1997):
children who attend quality child care have the same (or better) outcomes as children cared for at home
attachment parenting
NOT same as attachment:
attachment parenting can be very extreme, ie. nursing child until very old
importance of identity and values - writing intervention expt
expt: brief “value affirmation” intervention (writing essay about your values and why they’re important to you) can improve performance and lessen performance “gaps”
results: control = no essay, women exam score is lower than men bc don’t believe belong in physics class, tx = essay, women exam score is comparable to men’s
basic aspects of “self” - self-concepts
physical being (ie. i have a body), internal/mental characteristics (ie. i have beliefs, values, personality traits), social characteristics (ie. social roles/relationships)
self-concepts in infancy: 3-5 mo/8 mo
3-5 mo: evidence of some understanding of physical self, detect when own movements control an obj (balloon tied to wrist)
8 mo: separation anxiety, sign of developing awareness of self and others
rochat & morgan, 1995 - infant self-concepts
look longer at “flipped” video of own legs vs correct orientation —> some recognition of body
mirror test - self-concept
tests self-concept: do we recognize ourselves?
many species show no awareness of self in the mirror (ie. dog/cats, mirrors = extensions of the world)
the mirror task - lewis & brooks-gunn, 1979
aka the “Rouge task”
expt: w/o kid knowing, put red mark/sticker on their head
results: prior to 18 mo will look behind mirror for other kid/don’t know, after 18 mo will link image in mirror to self and touch mark on their head
species that pass mirror test
chimps, bonobos, orangutans, elephants, killer whales, magpies, etc
evidence of advancement in self concepts at 2 y/o
2-2.5 y/o: children recognize themselves in photos, use pronouns in language (me vs you, mine), show complex emotions (embarassment, pride, shame, guilt - require a sense of self)
“terrible twos” - understand i have my own goals, different from yours, time for self-assertion
susan harter, 2012 - sense of self study
children’s emerging sense of self is largely a social construction, based on observations of how one is treated & evaluated by others
study: interviewed lots of children on who they are, created composite statements
composite statements
most common ideas, provide representative type of description given by kids at each age
harter, 2012 - 3-4 y/o describe themselves
self-concept focuses on concrete observable characteristics (i am great)
activities and abilities (i can count)
basic psychological traits (happy)
unrealistically positive
harter, 2012 - 8-11 y/o describe themselves
social comparison plays a big role (focus on others’ evaluations/place in social network)
more nuanced concepts of traits (smart at some things, not at others)
more realistic (and less positive)
harter, 2012 - 11-13 y/o describe themselves
even more abstract self-descriptions (extrovert)
understand that self can differ depending on context (1 way w friends vs w family)
personal fable
form of egocentrism, belief that my feelings and xp are unique, special, weird, not shared by others
the spotlight effect
belief/worry about others’ judgements: imaginary audience focused on self
gilovich, medvec & savitsky, 2000 - spotlight effect
expt: wear an embarrassing t shirt to class and ask wearer how many ppl they think noticed vs survey how many ppl actually noticed
results: way less ppl actually noticed vs what was predicted
15 y/o composite answer of self-description
introspective, concerned w apparent contradictions (ie. searching feeling, conflict w/in self, multiple parts of identities that don’t go together)
18 y/o composite answer of self-description
more integrated, less concerned w what others think, focus on personal values and beliefs (coming to an understanding)
erik erikson’s theory of identity formation
ea stage of dvlpt has its own crisis/issue that individual must resolve
adolescence/early adulthood = crisis of identity (vs role confusion), must figure out “who you really are”
need psychosocial moratorium
psychosocial moratorium
need a “time out” in adolescence to explore options and form identity (ie. college)
period where you explore different roles/identities w/o making long-term commitments
erikson’s identity status categories - identity diffusion
no firm identity commitments, and not exploring options (most young adolescents)
erikson’s identity status categories - foreclosure
commitment to identity w/o exploration, based on values of others (most young adults)
erikson judged negatively but now know not necessarily
erikson’s identity status categories - moratorium
exploring choices, not yet committed (common at 17-19 y/o)
erikson’s identity status categories - identity achievement
coherent, stable identity seen as based on personal choices
james marcia (1980) - study of identity status categories
used interview methods to classify ppl
identity status related to well being?
yes! ppl who are committed to an identity tend to be higher in well-being, self-esteem, emotional stability
true whether attained through foreclosure or exploration
work was done in western societies though, need more studies to generalize to every culture
race
categorization of ppl into groups by/within a given society, in part based on physical characteristics
typically thought of as something you inherit, but is a social construct w/o biological meaning
ethnicity
cultural expression and cultural identification of ppl, including customs, history, language, religion, etc
is something you learn
ethnic identity
an individ’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group
extent to which an individ attributes their thoughts, feelings, and behavior to their membership in an ethnic group
dvlpt of ethnic identity - early school yrs
ethnic identity dvlps gradually
early school yrs, ethnic-minority children:
know the common characteristics of ethnic grp, start to have feelings about being members of grp, may have begun forming ethnically based preferences (± depends on social group)
dvlpt of ethnic identity - 5-8 y/o
children tend to identify themselves w their ethnic group, begin to understand their ethnicity as unchanging and stable
some individuals have stronger feelings of ethnic identity than others
kids of ethnic minorities explore their ethnic identity more than majority-group kids (white ppl may not think to explore racial identity vs minority ppl)
children of ethnic minority
greater challenges regarding ethnic identity:
culture clash btwn values of ethnic grp vs majority culture
growing awareness of discrimination throughout dvlpt
internalization of ethnic stereotypes (even negative ones)
steele & aronson, 1995 - ethnic identity study & stereotype threat
stereotype threat - when told stereotype, activates to enforce that stereotype
expt: give Blacks and Whites a test, tx = telling them the test is diagnostic of intellectual ability or not
results: when told, Blacks do worse bc stereotype threat, when not told, Blacks did better than Whites
hawaii vs mainland US - study of differences in which group is minority/majority (Xu, Farver & Pauker, 2015)
asian americans = numeric minority in mainland US but majority in hawaii
european americans = majority in mainland US but minority in Hawaii
hawaii vs mainland US - study results (Xu, Farver & Pauker, 2015)
result: ethnic identity is linked w self-esteem if you are a numerical minority group, strength of ethnic identity predicts self-esteem
if are majority, 2 things aren’t related
implication: important for parents, community leaders, teachers, etc to support dvlpt of minority ethnic identity
dvlpt of prejudice in kids - don’t mention race?
not true, kids learn prejudice from non-verbal behavior too and other sources (ie. TV, peers, teachers, etc)
The Clark Doll test (1940s)
expt: gave Black children identical dolls that only differed in if they were Black or White and asked them which doll was ugly, which is most like you, etc
results: 3 y/o - have internalized racial stereotypes even against own group, often said the Black dolls had the negative attributes
The Clark Doll test (1940s) - impact
internalization of negative stereotypes = stronger for children attending segregated schools in DC vs integrated ones in NY
1954 - Brown v Board of Ed: helped persuade SCOTUS that “separate but equal” schools for Black and White children weren’t equal, ended segregation
basis of children’s prejudice - s. africa test case
in s africa: majority of population = Black (Xhosa) but Black pop has lower social status compared to White
results: by 4 y/o: Black children in S Africa show social preference that track w social status, young children reason about the status of ethnic groups
preventing dvlpt of prejudice
role for children’s media: positive representation matters (sesame street = first efforts to increase this)
US children’s media has greater positive representation of underrep groups (ie. doc mcstuffins, dora, turning red)
recommend parents/caregivers/siblings: talk to young children openly about race, ethnicity, prejudice
age self-recognition dvlps
1.5-2 y/o + dvlpt of complex emotions that reflect developing sense of self and other
emotion - 4 components
transient subjective feelings (ie. fear, elation, is temporary vs emotion is not)
physiological correlates (adrenaline, HR)
thoughts that accompany feelings (how to escape/approach)
desire to take action (fight/flight)
darwin’s theory of emotions
human emotions = based on limited set of basic emotions that are universal across human cultures
direct link btwn inner emotional states (feelings) and facial expressions
links are innate, found in young babies
functions of emotions
promote survival - negative emotions help you avoid harmful things and positive ones help you approach things that are good for you
motivate action - w/o emotions, wouldn’t act (arguable, fight/flight)
communicate - for babies: motivate caregiver to act
functionalist approach - reason for disgust
goal: avoid contamination/illness
action: prevent substances from entering body/coming into close contact w body
functionalist approach - reason for fear
goal: maintain integrity of self
action: engage in behaviors (flight/withdrawal) that enable us to avoid danger, monitor danger, escape from danger
functionalist approach - reason for anger
goal: any end state that child wants
action: communicate desires or display power/dominance
functionalist approach - reason for sadness
goal: any end state that child wants
action: conserve energy by disengaging/withdrawing
undifferentiated emotions theory (sroufe, 1979, 1995)
early emotions not distinct, by this theory: we start w 2 dimensions of emotional xp (high arousal vs low arousal & positive vs negative feeling
xp pulls apart these simple emotions into more complex forms (4 quadrant graph)
discrete emotion theory (carroll izard)
emotions are innate
ea emotion = qualitatively different & associated w a diff set of bodily/facial reactions
emotions are distinct - even early in life
indexing infant emotion: facial expressions
are easily identified/distinguished from one another
expressed through consistent facial postures
one indication of internal feelings
FACS - facial action coding system
system to categorize human facial movements by their appearance on the face
ea emotion corresponds to distinct muscle combo
facial expressions as a window to underlying emotion
dvlped by Paul Ekman (1978)
baby FACS/AFFEX
successful at coding most emotional expressions in babies
babies = more difficult to code than adult’s bc baby fat hides musculature involved, infant’s expressions are less differentiated
dvlpt of facial expressions @ 6-7 mo
6 basic emotions: joy, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise, fear (only at about 7 mo and up)
dvlpt of positive emotions in babies
1 mo: no real smiling
2-3 mo: social smiles, smile when controlling an event
about 5 mo: laughter, infants’ positive emotional responses strengthen parent-infant interaction
dvlpt of negative emotions in babies
newborns: present but hard to differentiate
2 mo: expressions for anger and sadness distinct from distress/pain
dvlpt of fear: stranger anxiety
6-7 mo - 2 y/o:
reflects strengthening attachment to parents
increases over time until about 2, then fades
occurs cross-culturally
evolutionarily adaptive? (elicits help from parents)