Chapter 32 - Decolonization and Global Issues

India

Following independence from British rule after World War II, the region experienced mass religious violence as Hindus and Muslims fled across new borders created during the Partition. Mahatma Gandhi, who had led the nonviolent independence movement, was assassinated by a Hindu nationalist. His political successor, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, was later assassinated as well, fueling further unrest. The country continues to face poverty, overpopulation, ethnic and religious tensions, and a long-standing territorial dispute over Kashmir with a neighboring nation.

Pakistan

Formed during the Partition as a Muslim-majority nation, this country has faced poverty, military dominance in politics, and repeated conflicts with a neighbor over Kashmir. In 1971, internal divisions led to the Bangladesh Liberation War, in which East Pakistan broke away and formed a new nation. The country continues to struggle with political instability and regional insecurity.

Bangladesh

This nation was formed after a brutal civil war in 1971, when East Pakistan seceded due to political and cultural marginalization. The war included atrocities and mass displacement. Since independence, the country has experienced military coups, political instability, and underdevelopment, though it has made progress in garment manufacturing and education.

Indonesia

After the United States pressured the Netherlands to grant independence, nationalist leader Sukarno was installed as the first president. He suspended the constitution and nationalized foreign businesses, moving toward authoritarian rule. He was eventually replaced by a military dictatorship under Suharto. The country has since democratized but continues to face corruption, economic inequality, and limits on freedoms.

Burma (Myanmar)

Led to independence by nationalist military leaders, this country has experienced decades of military dictatorship. In the 1990s, Aung San Suu Kyi won democratic elections but was placed under house arrest. The military has carried out human rights abuses against ethnic minorities, including the Rohingya. The U.S. and other nations have refused to fully recognize the legitimacy of the current military regime.

Cambodia

Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge regime carried out a genocide between 1975 and 1979, killing up to 2 million people through forced labor, starvation, and executions. Cities were emptied, and families were forced onto communal farms. A war with Vietnam and eventual UN intervention brought the genocide to an end, but the country still struggles with poverty and weak democratic institutions.

Philippines

This country gained independence from the United States after World War II. While officially democratic, it has faced political corruption and authoritarian rule, particularly under President Ferdinand Marcos. Marcos was accused of orchestrating the assassination of opposition leader Benigno Aquino. Despite economic development, the country continues to struggle with inequality and government abuse.

Palestine

Following the Holocaust and under United Nations direction, Jewish immigration and land allocation led to the creation of a neighboring state. The local population was displaced during the 1948 war and has lived for decades under military occupation or in refugee camps. Groups like the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) have used both political and violent means to pursue statehood. The population continues to face statelessness, poverty, and military conflict.

Israel

Established in 1948 as a homeland for Jews, this country has fought multiple wars with Arab nations, including the 1948 War of Independence, the 1967 Six-Day War, and the 1973 Yom Kippur War. It has also been the target of terrorist attacks by groups like Hamas and the PLO. The status of Jerusalem and disputed territories remain unresolved, and political tensions persist despite economic strength.

Egypt

After gaining limited independence, this country remained under British influence until nationalist leader Gamal Abdel Nasser came to power. He led the Suez Crisis against Britain, France, and Israel and promoted Pan-Arabism. Under later leaders like Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak, the country experienced authoritarian rule. The 2011 Arab Spring led to temporary democratic reforms, but military-backed leadership soon returned. Poverty, corruption, and youth unemployment remain pressing issues.

United Arab Republic (Egypt & Syria)

This short-lived political union was part of Nasser's vision for Pan-Arab unity. It collapsed within a few years due to economic and political distrust, particularly over oil revenue distribution. Member nations participated in the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1973 Yom Kippur War against Israel. Groups like the PLO formed during this era, and foreign intervention from powers like the U.S. and USSR shaped politics in the region, often driven by control of oil and regional influence.

Iran

After decades of Western-backed monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, this country experienced a revolution in 1979 led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, establishing a theocratic regime. The U.S. embassy hostage crisis followed, worsening relations with the West. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) featured poison gas and child soldiers. The country faces sanctions over its nuclear program and continues to limit political and religious freedoms while supporting militant groups like Hezbollah.

Iraq

This country was ruled by Saddam Hussein, a brutal dictator who led invasions of Iran and Kuwait. The Gulf War followed Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait, and the 2003 U.S. invasion toppled Hussein's regime. Since then, the country has experienced civil war, terrorism by ISIS, and internal political instability. Infrastructure has been devastated, and corruption and poverty remain widespread.

Afghanistan

This country was invaded by the Soviet Union in 1979, sparking the Soviet-Afghan War. U.S.-backed fighters known as the Mujahideen eventually drove out Soviet forces, but internal divisions led to civil war. The Taliban, an extremist Islamic group, took power and later sheltered Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda. After the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. invaded in 2001. Despite 20 years of intervention, the Taliban regained control in 2021. The country suffers from famine, poverty, and a lack of infrastructure and human rights.

French North Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia)

This region experienced a mix of peaceful negotiations and violent uprisings to gain independence from colonial rule. One country fought a brutal war of independence from 1954-1962, resulting in mass deaths and the exodus of European settlers. It later faced a civil war in the 1990s fueled by Islamist insurgents. The region struggles with youth unemployment, political repression, underdevelopment, and in some areas, terrorism. Oil wealth exists but is unevenly distributed, and democratic institutions remain limited.

British East Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania)

Countries in this region achieved independence through both armed rebellion and peaceful negotiation. One saw the Mau Mau Rebellion and later ethnic tensions and terrorist attacks by al-Shabaab. Another suffered under the dictatorship of Idi Amin, known for human rights abuses and mass killings in the 1970s. While democratic elections have since been introduced, these countries continue to face poverty, corruption, limited infrastructure, and regional violence.

French West Africa (Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, etc.)

This region gained independence peacefully in the 1960s but has since faced serious challenges. Multiple countries have experienced military coups and terrorist activity from Islamic extremist groups. Poverty and youth unemployment are widespread, and political instability continues to fuel migration and regional insecurity. Economic dependence on former colonial powers remains an issue, along with weak infrastructure.

British West Africa (Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, etc.)

This region includes both stable democracies and fragile post-conflict nations. One country experienced a brutal civil war in the 1960s (Biafran War) and now faces terrorism from Boko Haram, along with corruption and poverty. Another is viewed as a model for peaceful democratic transitions but still struggles with underdevelopment. A third endured a bloody civil war fueled by conflict over diamond resources. The smallest country in the group remains politically unstable and economically weak.

South Africa

Following decades of apartheid, a legalized system of racial segregation, this country transitioned to democracy in 1994 with the election of Nelson Mandela. Despite being Africa's most industrialized economy, it remains one of the most unequal societies in the world. Issues include poverty, violent crime, high unemployment, and a severe AIDS epidemic. Corruption and political unrest have also eroded public trust in leadership.

Rwanda

In 1994, this country experienced a genocide in which nearly 1 million people were killed over 100 days. The violence was led by members of the Hutu majority against the Tutsi minority and moderate Hutus. The nation has since rebuilt rapidly under the leadership of Paul Kagame, who emphasizes national unity and development but allows limited political freedom. Ethnic tensions remain sensitive, and civil liberties are often restricted.

Somalia

This country collapsed into civil war after the fall of its central government in 1991. It has been plagued by violence from warlords, famine, piracy off its coast, and terrorist attacks by al-Shabaab. Despite efforts to establish a functioning government, much of the country remains under militia control. Millions are displaced, and basic services like healthcare, education, and security are severely lacking.

Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo)

After brutal colonial exploitation, this country gained independence in 1960 but immediately fell into chaos. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba was assassinated, and later dictator Mobutu Sese Seko ruled for over 30 years. The country descended into civil war during the 1990s, often called "Africa's World War," involving multiple neighboring nations. Armed groups continue to fight over resources like coltan and diamonds. Human rights abuses, poverty, and corruption are widespread.

Mexico

This country gained independence in the early 1800s and later experienced a major revolution in the 1900s that reshaped its political system under one dominant party. Economic reforms in the 1980s and 1990s encouraged trade with the United States, especially through NAFTA. However, widespread poverty and corruption remain major issues, and powerful drug cartels have fueled violence and instability across the nation.

Cuba

Once supported by the United States under a dictatorship, this country became a flashpoint in the Cold War after a communist revolution led by Fidel Castro. Events like the Bay of Pigs Invasion and the Missile Crisis brought it to global attention. Its alliance with the Soviet Union kept it afloat for decades, but after the USSR collapsed, the country fell into poverty and remains isolated with limited freedoms.

Haiti

This country became the first Black republic after a successful slave revolt in the early 1800s under Toussaint Louverture. Despite that legacy, it was later economically and politically dominated by foreign powers, including the United States. A history of dictatorships like “Papa Doc” Duvalier, political assassinations, and devastating natural disasters has left it one of the poorest nations in the Western Hemisphere, with limited economic opportunity and government instability.

Guatemala

After attempts at reform, this country saw a U.S.-backed coup overthrow its elected president in the 1950s. It suffered under decades of military rule and repression, culminating in a civil war that included genocide against indigenous populations like the Maya. Poverty, corruption, and inequality remain severe, especially in rural areas, despite a return to democracy in the 1990s.

El Salvador

Tensions between authoritarian rule and public demand for reform led to a brutal civil war in the 1980s. Leftist guerrillas fought against a military-backed government, which received support from the U.S. during the Cold War. The conflict ended with peace accords, but the legacy of violence continues today in the form of powerful gangs like MS-13, poverty, and one of the highest homicide rates in the world.

Nicaragua

This country experienced a leftist revolution that overthrew a long-standing dictatorship, followed by a U.S.-backed counter-revolution during the Cold War. The Sandinistas and Contras fought a violent civil war until elections in the 1990s brought an end to the conflict. Since then, democratic backsliding has raised concerns, as former revolutionary leaders like Daniel Ortega returned to power and were accused of authoritarian behavior.

Chile

During the Cold War, this country elected Marxist president who nationalized major industries. He was overthrown in a violent coup supported by the military, leading to a dictatorship under General Pinochet. Thousands were killed or disappeared during this period. Popular movements and international pressure eventually forced a return to democracy in the late 1980s.

Argentina

Following World War II, the military overthrew the ruling elite and supported a populist leader Juan Peron who nationalized industries and tried to strengthen workers' rights. Over time, authoritarian rule returned, and during a period known as the Dirty War, thousands were tortured, killed, or disappeared. The failed Falkland Islands war over territorial disputes discredited the dictatorship, and democratic elections followed soon after.  Today the country has become one of the more stable in the region and a leader of agriculture.

Brazil

This country gained independence peacefully in the early 1800s and developed under elite control. In the 1960s, the military took power with U.S. support and ruled through repression and censorship. Although economic development occurred, deep inequality persisted. A peaceful transition to democracy came in the 1980s, but issues like political corruption, urban poverty in the form of Favelas, and environmental destruction remain major challenges.

HIV/AIDS Epidemic

This global health crisis has had a devastating impact on sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in one country where it remains one of the leading causes of death. High rates of infection, combined with poverty, limited healthcare access, and social stigma, have made it a long-term challenge despite expanded treatment.

Ebola Outbreaks

This deadly viral disease has affected several countries in West Africa. The most severe outbreak (2014-2016) struck hardest in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia, killing over 11,000 people. Weak health infrastructure and mistrust of government responses worsened the crisis.

Partition of India

The division of British India into India and Pakistan based on religion. Led to mass migration, violence, and the deaths of over a million people.

Bangladesh Liberation War

A civil war in which East Pakistan fought for and gained independence, becoming Bangladesh. Supported by India.

Soviet-Afghan War

Cold War conflict in which the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Afghan resistance (Mujahideen) was supported by the U.S.

Iran-Iraq War

A brutal war over territory and religious conflict. Included the use of poison gas and child soldiers.

Gulf War

A U.S.-led coalition drove Iraq out of Kuwait after Saddam Hussein's invasion. Followed by economic sanctions on Iraq.

Yom Kippur War

Arab nations led by Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel during a holy day. Israel repelled the attack and returned land for peace.

Algerian War of Independence

A violent conflict between Algerian nationalists and French forces. Led to Algeria gaining independence.

Rwandan Genocide

Over 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed in 100 days by Hutu extremists.

Cambodian Genocide

The Khmer Rouge regime forced mass relocations and killed 1-2 million people through execution, starvation, and overwork.

Mau Mau Rebellion

A nationalist uprising against British colonial rule in Kenya, marked by guerrilla warfare and brutal repression.

Biafran War / Nigerian Civil War

A conflict where the southeastern region of Nigeria attempted to secede as Biafra. Over a million people died, mostly from famine.

Africa's World War

A series of conflicts in the Congo involving multiple neighboring countries and militias fighting over resources.

Guatemalan Civil War and Genocide

Long conflict involving military repression and genocide against indigenous people.

Brazilian Military Dictatorship

A Cold War-era regime marked by censorship, torture, and repression of political opposition.

El Salvador Civil War

Brutal conflict between leftist rebels and a U.S.-backed military government.

Dirty War

Period of state terrorism in Argentina when thousands of suspected dissidents were tortured and killed.

Nicaraguan Revolution

Armed conflict between the Sandinista government and U.S.-backed Contras.

al-Shabaab

A terrorist group based in Somalia with ties to al-Qaeda. Responsible for attacks in Somalia and neighboring Kenya.

Boko Haram

An extremist Islamic group based in Nigeria. Known for terrorism, kidnappings, and school attacks, especially in the northeastern part of the country.

Tutsi

The minority ethnic group in Rwanda targeted during the 1994 genocide. Later led the military force that ended the genocide.

Hutu

The majority ethnic group in Rwanda responsible for carrying out the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi minority.

Hezbollah

A militant Shi'a group based in Lebanon, funded by Iran. Considered a terrorist group by many Western countries.

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)

A political and military organization that led efforts for Palestinian statehood. Has used both diplomacy and armed struggle.

Mujahideen

Afghan fighters who resisted Soviet occupation in the 1980s. Supported by the U.S. during the Cold War, some members later formed extremist groups like the Taliban.

al-Qaeda

A terrorist group founded by Osama bin Laden. Responsible for the 9/11 attacks and active in conflicts in the Middle East and South Asia. Sheltered by the Taliban in Afghanistan.

Taliban

An Islamic fundamentalist group that ruled Afghanistan from the 1990s until the U.S. invasion in 2001, and regained power in 2021. Known for harsh interpretation of Islamic law and suppression of rights, especially for women.

Khmer Rouge

A radical communist group led by Pol Pot in Cambodia. Responsible for genocide from 1975 to 1979.

Sandinistas (FSLN)

Leftist revolutionary group that overthrew the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua and established a socialist government.

Contras

Anti-communist rebel group in Nicaragua supported by the U.S. during the Cold War.

MS-13

Violent street gang originating in El Salvador that grew in power after the civil war.

Patrice Lumumba

The first prime minister of the Congo, assassinated in 1961 after seeking Soviet support. His death marked the start of Congo's post-independence chaos.

Mobutu Sese Seko

Dictator of the Congo who ruled for over three decades with U.S. support. Known for corruption, personal enrichment, and suppression of opposition.

Paul Kagame

Tutsi commander who ended the 1994 Rwandan genocide and has ruled Rwanda since, bringing stability and growth but also limiting political freedoms.

Nelson Mandela

Anti-apartheid leader imprisoned for 27 years in South Africa. After his release, he became the first Black president of South Africa in 1994, marking the end of apartheid.

Osama bin Laden

Leader of al-Qaeda, responsible for planning the 9/11 attacks. Originally fought with the Mujahideen in Afghanistan before turning against the West.

Saddam Hussein

Dictator of Iraq who led the country into wars with Iran and Kuwait. Responsible for the use of chemical weapons and mass repression. Overthrown by the U.S. in 2003.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (the Shah)

The last monarch of Iran, backed by the U.S., known for authoritarian rule and Westernization. Overthrown during the 1979 Iranian Revolution.

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Led the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran, replacing the pro-Western shah with a theocratic government. Opposed Western influence and established Iran as an Islamic republic.

Hosni Mubarak

Ruled Egypt for nearly 30 years after Sadat. His presidency ended during the Arab Spring due to widespread protests against corruption and repression.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Led Egypt after overthrowing the monarchy and promoted Pan-Arabism. Nationalized the Suez Canal and was central in the Suez Crisis and formation of the short-lived United Arab Republic.

Yasser Arafat

Leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), he represented Palestinian nationalism and engaged in both political negotiations and support for armed struggle.

Ferdinand Marcos

Authoritarian president of the Philippines who declared martial law and was accused of massive corruption and the assassination of political rival Benigno Aquino.

Pol Pot

Leader of the Khmer Rouge, the communist regime in Cambodia responsible for the genocide of 1-2 million people through forced labor, starvation, and executions from 1975-1979.

Aung San Suu Kyi

Pro-democracy leader in Myanmar who won elections in the 1990s but was repeatedly placed under house arrest by the military junta. She later served in government before being removed again by a military coup.

Suharto

Took power from Sukarno and ruled Indonesia as a military dictator for over 30 years. Known for suppressing dissent and human rights abuses.

Indira Gandhi

India's first female prime minister and the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru. She was assassinated in 1984 by her Sikh bodyguards following her military crackdown on Sikh separatists.

Mahatma Gandhi

Led India's nonviolent movement for independence from British rule through civil disobedience and peaceful protest. He was assassinated in 1948 by a Hindu nationalist opposed to his efforts for Hindu-Muslim unity.

Fidel Castro

Led the Cuban Revolution and established a communist dictatorship aligned with the Soviet Union.

Fulgencio Batista

Military dictator of Cuba backed by the U.S. before being overthrown by Castro.

Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier

Brutal dictator of Haiti who ruled through terror and corruption.

Augusto Pinochet

Military leader who overthrew Chile's elected government in a violent coup and ruled as a dictator.

Juan Peron

Military-backed populist leader who nationalized industries and appealed to workers in post-WWII Argentina.

Daniel Ortega

Former Sandinista revolutionary and current authoritarian leader of Nicaragua.

Political Global Issues

Challenges for nations and their peoples that include war, civil war, genocide, terrorism, foreign influence/neocolonialism, dictators, and oligarchies.

Economic Global Issues

Challenges for nations and their peoples that include poverty, underdevelopment, lack of opportunity, economic growth, economic collaboration and connectedness, economic recessions or depressions.

Social Global Issues

Challenges for nations and their peoples that include lack of rights and freedoms, lack of representative government, religious and ethnic division, famine and food insecurity, population growth, lack of health care and pandemics, and refugees and migration.

Tools to solve political global issues

Diplomatic agreements, diplomatic pressure, sanctions/embargoes, the United Nations (General Assembly, Security Council, International Court of Justice), or military action.

Tools to solve economic global issues

Trade agreements, aid organizations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank., supranational organizations (European Union).

Tools to solve social global issues

Global awareness, aid organizations, supranational organizations, diplomatic action, the United Nations (General Assembly, Security Council, International Court of Justice), sanctions/embargoes.