Chapter 7: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Consistency

attitudes

global evaluations toward some object or issue

dual attitudes

different evaluations of the same attitude object held by the same person (perhaps one deliberate, the other automatic)

automatic (implicit or unconscious) attitudes

very fast evaluative, “gut-level” responses that people don’t think a great deal about

deliberate (explicit or conscious) attitudes

reflective responses that people think more carefully about

beliefs

pieces of information about something; facts or opinions

mere exposure effect

the tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which, through repeated pairings, a neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus (e.g., meat powder) that naturally evokes a particular response (salivation)

unconditioned response

a naturally occurring response (e.g., salivation)

neutral stimulus

a stimulus (e.g., Pavlov’s bell) that initially evokes no response

conditioned stimulus

a neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to evoke a conditioned response

conditioned response

a response that, through repeated pairings, is evoked by a formerly neutral stimulus

operant (instrumental) conditioning

a type of learning in which people are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished

social (observational) learning

a type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing them, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing them

attitude polarization

the finding that people’s attitudes become more extreme as they reflect on them

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes

cognitive dissonance

the uncomfortable feeling people experience when they have two thoughts or cognitions conflict with one another

effort justification

the finding that when people suffer or work hard or make sacrifices, they will try to convince themselves that it is worthwhile

post-decision dissonance

cognitive dissonance experienced after making a difficult choice, typically reduced by increasing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and decreasing the attractiveness of rejected alternatives

selective exposure

refers to the tendency of individuals to select information that supports their preexisting views and avoid information that contradicts their preexisting views

filter bubble

algorithms used on the internet to selectively guess what information a user would like to see based on information available about that use

A—B problem

the problem of inconsistency between attitudes (A) and behaviors (B)

erotic plasticity

female sexuality is more open than male sexuality to influence from social, cultural, and situational factors

accessibility

how easily something comes to mind

behavioral intentions

an individual’s plans to perform the behavior in question

subjective norms

an individual’s perceptions about whether significant others think he or she should (or should not) perform the behavior in question

perceived behavioral control

an individual’s beliefs about whether they can actually perform the behavior in question

belieft perseverance

the finding that once beliefs form, they are resistant to change, even if the information on which they are based is discredited

coping

individual efforts made to manage distressing problems and emotions that affect the physical and psychological outcomes of stress

assumptive worlds

the view that people live in social worlds based on certain beliefs (assumptions) about reality

cognitive coping

the idea that beliefs play a central role in helping people cope with and recover from misfortunes