Irish American Experience

Hibernocentrism

Definition: An interpretive perspective that places Ireland at the enter of analysis. It emphasizes viewing events, identities, or histories primarily through an Irish lens rather than a British, European, or broader imperial one.

Significance: It matters because it challenges traditional Anglocentric narratives about Ireland. By centering Irish viewpoints, it reframes discussions of colonization, nationalism, identity formation, and cultural revival, it also highlights how Irish migrants and their descendants interpreted their experiences abroad, particularly in the United States.

Date: The term is mostly associated with 20^th century historical and cultural studies, gaining traction particularly in the late 20^th century a postcolonial approaches became more influential.

Gaelic Revival

Definition: It was a cultural movement in Ireland aimed at reviving the Irish language and promoting traditional Irish literature, sports, music, and folklore. It involved organizations such as the Gaelic League and the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA)

Significance: It helped reassert Irish cultural identity during a time of political nationalism. It laid the cultural groundwork for the push toward independence by fostering a distinct Irish consciousness separate from British influence. Many leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising and later nationalist movements were deeply involved in or influenced by it. It also preserved endangered cultural practices and reshaped modern Irish history.

Date: Around the 1890s-1920s, with roots in the 1880s and major institutional activity through the early 20^th century.

Russell Brothers

Definition: They were a popular 19th century American minstrel and vaudeville duo known for performing exaggerated comic sketches that often caricatured Irish immigrants. Their acts typically involved stage Irish personas, slapstick humor, and thickly accented dialogue that played into mainstream audiences’ expectations about Irish speech and behavior.

Significance: Their performances helped shape and spread stage-Irish stereotypes during the mid- to late-1880s. Their portrayals contributed to how the broader American public understood and often mocked Irish immigrants, reinforcing ideas of the Irish as humorous, disorderly, emotional, or simple.

Date: Active primarily in the 1870s-1890s, during the height of minstrel and early vaudeville entertainment.

Lace Curtain

Definition: A term used, often jokingly or critically, to describe middle-class Irish Americans who had achieved a degree of financial comfort and displayed it through markers of respectability.

Significance: The term illustrates class divisions within Irish American communities during the late 19^th and 20^th centuries. It shows how upward mobility created tension between working-class immigrants and those who were assimilating into mainstream middle-class American culture.

Date: Most common around the 1880s-1930s, during the period of Irish American socioeconomic ascent.

American Irish Historical Society

Definition: It is a cultural and scholarly organization founded to preserve and promote the history, achievements, and contributions of Irish Americans.

Significance: it reflects a broader effort by upwardly mobile Irish Americans to assert respectability and cultural legitimacy in the United States. By documenting Irish contributions to politics, the military, literature, science, and public life, it countered lingering stereotypes of the Irish as poor, uneducated, and politically radical. It also played a role in shaping an elite Irish American identity, demonstrating how Irish Americans sought to position themselves within mainstream American culture.

Date: Founded in 1897 in New York City; especially influential in the early 20^th century.

Tammany Hall

Definition: It was the Democratic Party political machine that dominated New York City politics for much of the 19^th and 20^th centuries. Built on a system of patronage, neighborhood organizations, and immigrant mobilization as it traded services, jobs, welfare assistance, legal help, for votes.

Significance: It is crucial to understanding Irish American political power. Large numbers of Irish immigrants found employment, social services, and political influence through it. This helped the Irish move from the marginalized newcomers to leaders within urban politics. At the same time, it became infamous for corruption, voter fraud, and graft, shaping national debates about urban governance, democracy, and reform. It represents both the empowerment of of immigrant communities and the darker side of politics.

Date: Founded in 1789, but was most powerful around the 1850s-1930s, with influence declining sharply after the 1930s reforms.

George Washington Plunkitt

Definition: He was a prominent Tammany Hall politician and longtime New York State legislator in the late 19^th and early 20^th century. He became famous for his frank explanations of how political machines operated, especially through his speeches.

Significance: He openly defended the workings of machine politics, particularly his idea of “honest graft,” the notion that politicians could personally profit from insider knowledge as long as they also served their constituents. His statements provide one of the clearest firsthand accounts of how Tammany Hall built loyalty among immigrants through jobs, favors, and social services.

Date: Active mainly 1870s-1910s; his famous interviews/speeches were published in 1905.

Al Smith

Definition: He was a prominent Irish American Democratic politician from New York, serving as Governor of New York for four terms and becoming Democratic nominee for president in 1928, the first Catholic ever to be nominated by a major U.S. party.

Significance: He represents the peak of Irish American political ascent in the early 20^th century. His career embodied the rise of urban, immigrant-backed Democratic politics and the reform-minded governance associated with the Progressive Era. His 1928 presidential campaign exposed deep national prejudices, especially anti-Catholicism and anti-urban sentiment, which contributed significantly to his defeat. His legacy also includes support for workers’ rights, social welfare reforms, and modernizing state government. He stands as a symbol of both the possibilities and limits of immigrant political power in early 20^th century America.

Date: Active mainly 1910s-1930s; presidential campaign in 1928.

Senator Joseph McCarthy

Definition: He was a Republican U.S. Senator from Wisconsin, 1947-1957, who became the face of the early Cold War anti-Communist crusade. He is best known for alleging, often without evidence, that Communists and Soviet spies had infiltrated the U.S. government, military, and media.

Significance: His actions sparked what became known as McCarthyism, a period of intense fear, political repression, and widespread accusations of subversion. is Senate hearings and investigations damaged reputations, led to blacklists, and created a climate in which dissent was equated with disloyalty. His rise and fall illustrate the power of Cold War hysteria, the dangers of demagoguery, and the vulnerability of civil liberties during periods of national fear. His eventual censure by the Senate in 1954 marked a major turning point and weakened the broader anti-Communist witch-hunt.

Date: Most influential 1950-1954; served in the Senate 1947-1957.

Father Charles Coughlin

Definition: He was a Catholic priest and influential radio broadcaster in the United States during the 1930s. Through his weekly radio sermons, he became one of the most widely heard public figures of the era, commenting on politics, economics, and religion.

Significance: He shaped Depression-era political discourse. Initially a supporter of FDR and the New Deal, he later turned against Roosevelt and promoted a blend of populism, economic nationalism, and conspiracy theories. His broadcasts increasingly included anti-Semitic rhetoric, attacks on bankers, and praise for aspects of European fascist regimes, making hom one of the most controversial figures in American public life. He represents how some Catholic and immigrant communities engaged with mass media and political populism. His rise and eventual government/church suppression illustrate the limits of political dissent and the dangers of demagoguery in the broadcast age.

Date: Most influential around 1930-1940; peak radio audience in the mid-1930s.

Christian Front

Definition: It was a far-right, Catholic, anti-Communist organization in the United States, founded in the late 1930s by the followers of Father Charles Coughlin. It attracted mostly working-class Irish American Catholics in major cities like New York City and Boston

Significance: It is important because it shows how Coughlin’s rhetoric translated into real-work extremist organizing. The group combined militant anti-Communism with strong anti-Semitic ideology and sometimes engaged in street violence. In 1940, several members were arrested for plotting to steal weapons and overthrow the U.S. government, though many charges were later dropped. It highlights fractures within Irish American Catholic communities, the appeal of authoritarian and xenophobic ideas during the late Depression years, and federal concerns about domestic extremism on the eve of World War II.

Date: Active mainly 1938-1940

Boycott

Definition: A form of collective protest in which people refuse to buy goods, use services, or engage with an individual or organization in order to pressure them to change their behavior. The term originates from Irish tenant resistance against a landlord’s agent, Captain Charles Boycott

Significance: It became a major tactic of the Irish Land League during the Land War, demonstrating the growing power of organized tenant action against landlords. Villagers socially and economically isolated the Captain, refusing to work for him, trade with him, or even speak to him, forcing him to leave. The successful tactic showed how nonviolent, community-based pressure could be used as a political weapon. It influenced later labor movements, civil rights campaigns, and international protest strategies

Date: 1880, during the height of the Irish Land War.

John Devoy

Definition: He was one of the most influential Irish revolutionaries of the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries. A former Fenian, he spent much of his life in exile in the United States, where he became a leading organizer, journalist, and fundraiser for Irish independence.

Significance: He is central to the history of Irish republicanism abroad. Through organizations like the Clan na Gael, he coordinated Irish-American financial and political support for revolutionary activity in Ireland. He helped plan the 1875 Catalpa rescue, supported the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and later backed the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising. His newspaper, the Gaelic American, shaped Irish American nationalist opinion and built transatlantic networks crucial to the independence movement. He symbolizes the powerful role of the Irish diaspora in sustaining Irish nationalism

Date: Active 18780s-1920s; lived 1842-1928.

Land League

Definition: Founded in 1879, it was a mass political and agrarian reform organization dedicated to reducing rents, ending evictions, and ultimately breaking the landlord system in Ireland. Its leaders included Michael Davitt and Charles Stewart Parnell

Significance: It played a central role in the Land War, 1879-1882, organizing tenant resistance through rent strikes, mass meetings, and tactics like the boycott. It transformed rural unrest into a coordinated national movement and pressured the British government to pass major land reforms. It also helped politicize the Irish countryside, empowering small farms and shaping a new, mass-based national politics. Its methods of collective action, especially boycotting and organized community solidarity, became models for later social and political movements

Date: Founded 1879; most active 1879-1882, with successor organizations continuing into the late 19^th century.

Home Rule

Definition: It refers to the political movement seeking a domestic Irish parliament with authority over internal affairs while remaining within the United Kingdom. It aimed for limited self-government, not full independence, through constitutional and parliamentary means.

Significance: It dominated Irish politics in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries. Led by the Irish Parliamentary Party under Charles Stewart Parnell and later John Redmond, it represented the mainstream nationalist alternative to revolution. The movement brought Ireland to the center of British politics, sparked intense opposition from Ulster unionists, leading to the Ulster Volunteer Force, and contributed to rising tensions the preceded the 1916 Easter Rising. A Third Home Rule Bill passed in 1914 but was suspended at the outbreak of World War I, and by the war’s end, the political landscape had shifted decisively toward full independence.

Date: Major period was 1870s-1914 and key moments include: the First Home Rule Bill in 1886, the Second Home Rule Bill in 1893, and the Third Home Rule Bill between 1912-1914.

No Irish Need Apply

Definition: It refers to the discriminatory signs or job advertisements in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries that explicitly excluded Irish immigrants from employment. It became a symbol of anti-Irish, anti-Catholic prejudice in the United States and Britain.

Significance: The phrase illustrates the hostility and nativism Irish immigrants faced during their early years in America, especially in urban labor markets. Wether or not every Irish person regularly saw such signs, the idea became deeply embedded in Irish American collective memory. It represents broader themes of immigrant exclusion, labor competition, and ethnic stereotyping.

Date: Most common 1840s-1870s, especially during and after the Great Famine immigration waves.

Easter Rising

Definition: It was an armed rebellion launched by Irish republicans during Easter Week 1916 in Dublin, and a few other locations. Led by groups such as the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Irish Volunteers, and the Irish Citizen Army, it declared an independent Irish Republic and attempted to end British rule by force.

Significance: Although it was militarily unsuccessful and lasted only six days, its political impact was enormous. The British execution of the leaders turned public opinion dramatically in favor of the rebels, transforming them into martyrs. This shift fueled the rise of Sinn Féin, sparked mass support for independence, and set in motion the events leading to the War of Independence, 1919-1921. It is a key moment in modern Irish nationalism, symbolizing sacrifice, cultural revival, and the break from constitutional Home Rule toward militant republicanism.

Date: April 24-29, 1916 (Easter Week).

Harrigan and Hart

Definition: They were a famous late 19^th century American theatrical duo known for their musical comedies depicting urban immigrant life, especially Irish Americans, in New York City. Their shows combined comedy, song, and character sketches.

Significance: They are important for shaping the stage Irish tradition in American popular culture. Unlike more hostile caricatures, their portrayals often blended humor with sympathy, offering a more nuanced, though still stereotyped, depiction of Irish American communities. Their work captured the everyday world of working-class New York City, saloon politics, ethnic neighborhoods, and immigrant struggles, and contributed to the development of American musical theater. They illustrate how immigrants used entertainment to negotiate identity and gain cultural visibility

Date: Active mainly 1870s-1880s (partnership roughly 1871-1885).

Fenians

Definition: They were members of a secret Irish nationalist societies in the mid-19^th century, most notably the Fenian Brotherhood in the United States and the Irish Republican Brotherhood in Ireland, dedicated to achieving Irish independence from Britain through revolutionary means.

Significance: They represent a shift from constitutional nationalism, like the Home Rule Movement) to militant republicanism. They organized uprisings, raids, and armed campaigns, including the 1867 Fenian Rising in Ireland and raids on British Canada, showing transatlantic support for Irish independence. They inspired later revolutions movements, including the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising, and played a key role in sustaining Irish nationalist sentiment among the diaspora.

Date: Active mainly 1858-1880s, with notable actions in the 1860s-1870s.

Ancient Order of Hibernians

Definition: It is an Irish Catholic fraternal organization founded to support Irish immigrants in the United States and preserve Irish culture, Catholic faith, and nationalist ideals.

Significance: It provided mutual aid, social support, and community organization for Irish immigrants facing discrimination. It helped foster a sense of Irish identity in America, supported political activism, including backing Irish nationalist causes, and countered nativist sentiment. The organization also played a role in the rise of Irish American political influence, particularly in urban Democratic politics.

Date: Founded in the 1830s-1840s in the U.S.; became particularly influential mid-19^th to early 20^th century.

Stage Irishmen

Definition: It refers to stereotyped depictions of Irish characters in 18^th and 19^th century plays, theater, and later vaudeville. These characters were usually portrayed as comically drunken, simple-minded, hot-tempered, or overly talkative, exaggerating traits associated with Irish immigrants.

Significance: The stereotype reinforced negative perceptions of the Irish in Britain and the United States, shaping public attitudes toward Irish immigrants. It also influenced entertainment, politics, and social discourse, illustrating how cultural representation can perpetuate prejudice. Irish performers and writers sometimes subverted or embraced the trope, but it remained a persistent symbol of ethnic stereotyping.

Date: Common in theater 1700s-1800s; persisted in American vaudeville and minstrel shows into the late 19^th century.

Tin Pan Alley Songs

Definition: Refers to the collection of New York City music publishers and songwriters who dominated American popular music in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries. They were commercially produced sheet music hits of the era, often sentimental or catchy tunes designed for mass appeal.

Significance: They helped shape American popular culture and reflected contemporary social attitudes, including ethnic stereotypes. Many of them portrayed Irish immigrants, contributing to both entertainment and the reinforcement of cultural caricatures. They also played a role in the commercialization of music and the rise of national popular culture that reached urban immigrant communities.

Date: Peak influence 1880s-1930s.

George M. Cohan

Definition: He was an American entertainer, playwright, composer, and producer known as the “father of American musical comedy.” He wrote, performed, and popularized many songs that celebrated Irish American identity, patriotism, and urban life.

Significance: His work helped shape American musical theater and brought Irish American culture into mainstream entertainment. His songs like Yankee Doodle Dandy and The Irish and the Irishness of It celebrated both patriotism and ethnic identity, giving Irish Americans visibility and pride. He also influenced the development of Broadway as a commercial and cultural institution.

Date: Active around the 1900s-1930s; peak popularity in the 1910s-1920s.

Father Francis Duffy

Definition: He was a Catholic priest and chaplain of the 69^th Infantry Regiment, Fighting 69^th, during World War I, a unit composed largely of Irish Americans from New York

Significance: He became a symbol of Irish American patriotism, religious leadership, and military service. He provided spiritual support to soldiers, boosted morale, and gained recognition for his courage under fire. After the war, he continued to serve the Irish American community in New York City, strengthening ties between Catholicism, ethnic identity, and civic participation. His legacy highlights how Irish Americans negotiated dual identities as both Americans and members of an ethnic minority.

Date: Active as chaplain 1917-1918, World War I; influential in New York Irish American life postwar through 1932.

Militant Catholicism

Definition: It refers to a form of Catholic activism in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries that combined religious devotion with political engagement, often defending Catholic interests, promoting social reform, and resisting perceived threats from secularism, Protestantism, or socialism.

Significance: It shaped community organization, education, and politics, Leaders like Father Charles Coughlin and organizations like the Ancient Order of Hibernians mobilized Catholics to assert cultural, moral, and political influence. It also intersected with nationalism, nativism, and social movements, highlighting how religion could be a source of identity power, and political activism.

Date: Most prominent late 19^th century through 1930s, especially during the rise of urban Irish Catholic communities in the U.S..

Knights of Columbus

Definition: It is a Catholic fraternal organization founded to provide mutual aid, social support, and community service for Catholic men, particularly immigrants. It also promoted Catholic values and charitable work.

Significance: The organization helped Irish and other Catholic immigrants gain social respectability, economic security, and political influence in the United States. By providing insurance, social networks, and civic engagement opportunities, it strengthened Catholic identity and supported the integration of immigrant communities into American society. It also became a prominent advocate for Catholic causes nationwide.

Date: Founded in 1882 in New Haven, Connecticut; influential late 19^th-20^th century.

Going My Way

Definition: A 1944 American musical comedy-drama film starring Bing Crosby as Father Charles “Chuck” O’Malley, a young, progressive Catholic priest who revitalizes a parish and builds community.

Significance: The film reflects Irish American Catholic identity and values in popular culture, portraying priests as moral leaders, community organizers, and sympathetic figures. It reinforced positive depictions of Irish Catholics in mid-20^th century America and highlighted themes of charity, social cohesion, and religious devotion. The film was hugely popular, winning multiple Academy Awards, and influenced public perceptions of Catholicism and Irish American life.

Date: Released 1944.

Notre Dame Football

Definition: Refers to the a university’s collegiate football program, one of the most successful and famous in U.S. history. It became closely associated with Irish American identity and Catholic pride.

Significance: The team symbolized Irish American achievement and visibility in mainstream American culture. In the early to mid-20^th century, the team provided a sources of pride for Catholic and immigrant communities, countering stereotypes and promoting social cohesion. Coaches like Knute Rockne turned the program into a national powerhouse, linking athletic success with ethnic and religious identity.

Date: Became nationally prominent 1910s-1930s, with continued significance throughout the 20^th century.

Legion of Decency

Definition: It was a Catholic organization in the United States that monitored films and advocated for moral standards in cinema, encouraging audiences to avoid movies deemed immoral or offensive.

Significance: Formed by the Catholic Church, it had major influence on Hollywood, promoting censorship and shaping content to reflect Catholic values. It illustrates how Irish American Catholics exercised social and cultural power to protect religious and moral norms in public life. It also reflects broader efforts by Catholic organizations to guide popular culture and assert influence in American society during the 20^th century.

Date: Founded in 1934; influential mainly 1930s-1960s

Cardinal William O’Connell

Definition: He was the Archbishop of Boston from 1907 to 1944 and the first American-born cardinal in the Archbishop of Boston. He was a leading figure in the Catholic Church in the United States.

Significance: He played a central role in strengthening Irish American Catholic identity and institutional power. He oversaw the expansion of parishes, schools, and hospitals, promoted Catholic education, and was influential in politics, particularly in supporting Irish American politicians. He also defended Catholic moral standards in public life, exemplifying the close ties between religion, ethnicity, and civic leadership in urban America

Date: Archbishop of Boston 1907-1944; made cardinal in 1911

Cardinal Francis Spellman

Definition: He was the Archbishop of New York from 1939 to 1967 and a prominent figure in both the Catholic Church and American public life. He was known for his strong anti-Communism and influence on U.S. politics and military policy.

Significance: He exemplified Irish American Catholic power and influence in mid-20^th century America. He served as a spiritual advisor to multiple U.S. presidents, supported military chaplaincy programs, and promoted Catholic social and political agendas. His prominence highlights the intersection of religion, ethnicity, and national politics, and he helped shape public perceptions of Catholicism in the United States

Date: Archbishop of New York 1939-1967; made cardinal in 1946

Dr. Tom Dooley

Definition: He was an American physician, humanitarian, and author, best known for providing medical care and relief in Southeast Asia, particularly Laos, during the 1950s and early 1960s.

Significance: He became a symbol of Irish American Catholic humanitarianism and international goodwill. His work, often publicized through books and media, highlighted the moral and religious motivation of service rooted in Catholic values. He helped inspire the growth of Catholic volunteerism and international relief efforts, demonstrating how Irish American Catholics extended their influence and ideals globally.

Date: Active mainly 1950s-1961, he died in 1961.

The Troubles

Definition: It was a violent ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland from the late 1960s to 1998, involving Catholic/nationalist/republican communities seeking unification with the Republic of Ireland and Protestant/unionist/loyalist communities wanting to remain part of the United Kingdom.

Significance: It resulted in over 3,500 deaths and tens of thousands of injuries, leaving a deep social, political, and economic impact. It highlighted sectarian divisions, civil rights struggles, and the legacies of British colonial policies in Ireland. The conflict drew international attention, involvement from the Irish diaspora and U.S. policymakers, and culminated in the Good Friday Agreement, 1998, which established a power-sharing government and largely ended the violence.

Date: Late 1960s-1998

Northern Irish Civil Rights Association (NICRA)

Definition: It was an organization founded to campaign for civil rights for the Catholic/nationalist minority in Northern Ireland, focusing on issues like housing discrimination, voting rights, and policy reform.

Significance: It played a key role in highlighting systemic inequalities and mobilizing peaceful protests in the late 1960s. Its marches and demonstrations were often met with violent responses from police and loyalist groups, which helped escalate tensions that contributed to the outbreak of The Troubles. It’s activism also influenced international awareness and the push for political reform in Northern Ireland

Date: Founded 1967; most active late 1960s-early 1970s

Irish Northern Aid Committee (NORAID)

Definition: it was an organization in the United States that funded and supported Irish republican paramilitary groups, particularly the Provisional Irish Republican Army, during the conflict in Northern Ireland.

Significance: It illustrates the role of the Irish American diaspora in the Northern Ireland conflict. It provided financial and material support that fueled the armed campaign for Irish unification, while also generating controversy and debate in the U.S. over the ethics of supporting paramilitary violence. It’s activities highlight the transatlantic dimensions of The Troubles and the political engagement of Irish Americans.

Date: Founded 1970; active primarily 1970s-1990s.

Good Friday Accord

Definition: Signed on April 10, 1998, it was a peace agreement that ended most of the violence of The Troubles in Northern Ireland. It established a power-sharing government between unionists and nationalists and set framework for civil rights, policing, and cross-border cooperation with the Republic of Ireland

Significance: The agreement marked a major step toward peace, political stability, and reconciliation in Northern Ireland. It reflected decades of activism, negotiation, and international involvement, including by the United States and the European Union. The accord also allowed for the decommissioning of weapons, the release of political prisoners, and mechanisms for addressing sectarian divisions, demonstrating a shift from violent conflict to political resolution.

Date: Signed April 10, 1998; implementation continued into the early 2000s.

Monsignor Fulton Sheen

Definition: He was an American Catholic bishop, televangelist, and author, best known for his radio and television programs in the mid 20^th century, including Life Is Worth Living.

Significance: He played a key role in popularizing Catholicism in the United States and shaping Irish American religious identity. His media presence brought Catholic teachings to a national audience, reinforced moral and religious values, and highlighted the influence of Irish American Catholics in public life. He is often remembered as a pioneer of religious broadcasting and a symbol of the integration of faith, media, and ethnic identity.

Date: Active mainly 1940s-1960s; television prominence 1951-1957.

Catholic Youth Organization (CYO)

Definition: It is a church-based program founded to provide athletic, social, and educational activities for Catholic youth, often focusing on character development, teamwork, and faith formation.

Significance: It played a major role in strengthening Irish American Catholic identity by creating safe, structured environments for young people to socialize and participate in sports. It reinforced communities ties, promoted moral and religious values, and helped integrate immigrant families into urban American life while maintaining ethnic and religious cohesion.

Date: Founded 1930s; influential mid-20^th century onward.

JFK’s Election in 1960

Definition: The 1960 presidential election was held on November 8, 1960. In that election, he, a Democrat and U.S. Senator from Massachusetts, narrowly defeated Republic Vice President Richard Nixon to become the 35^th President of the United States

Significance: He was the first Catholic president and his election was an ethnic-community milestone. He broke religious barriers and civil-religious precedents. He modernized presidential campaigning and his election was close and high-stakes.

Date: The election occurred November 8, 1960. Kennedy’s presidency began January 20, 1961.

Blockbusting

Definition: It was a real estate practice in the United States in which agents encouraged white homeowners to sell their homes at below-market prices by stoking fears that racial or ethnic minorities, often African Americans, were moving into the neighborhood. The homes were then sold at higher prices to minority families, generating profit for the agents.

Significance: It contributed to white flight, residential segregation, and the decline of urban neighborhoods. It exploited racial tensions for economic gain and reshaped American cities’ demographic patterns of discrimination in housing, complementing redlining and other forms of structural inequality, and prompted later federal regulation through the Fair Housing Act of 1968.

Date: Most prevalent 1950s-1960s, especially in northern and midwestern U.S. cities.

Frank Kelly Murder

Definition: He was a 19^th century white political operative in Philadelphia, associated with the Democratic Party machine. On Election Day, October 10, 1871, he fatally shot Octavius Catto, a leading Black civil rights activists, educator, and veteran of the Civil War, as part of a broader wave of election day violence aimed at suppressing Black voting.

Significance: The killing of Catto is one of the most notorious examples of post-Civil War racial and political violence in the North. It shows how newly enfranchised Black citizens, encouraged by Reconstruction amendments, faced deadly intimidation from white supremacist partisans. The event underlined the limits of Reconstruction-era gains, even in Northern cities, and demonstrated that granting Black men the vote was not enough to guarantee their safety or political power. The fact that Kelly was later tried, in 1877, but acquitted by an all-white jury underscores how deeply racial bias and political corruption infiltrated the justice system. The murder of Catto, and the murderers escape of conviction, contributed to a climate of fear and disenfranchisement among Black communities. It helped slow the progress toward racial equality and marked regression for civil-rights efforts in Philadelphia and beyond.

Date: The shooting occurred on October 10, 1871. His trial was held in April 1877, six years later.

Berrigan Brothers

Definition: They were American Catholic priests and activists known for their anti-war activism during the Vietnam War. The participated in protests, civil disobedience, and symbolic actions against U.S. military policies.

Significance: They exemplify militant Catholic activism in the 20^th century, linking religious conviction with social justice. They became nationally known for acts like burning draft files and protesting nuclear weapons, highlighting the role of Irish American Catholics in peace and anti-war movements. Their work influenced broader faith-based activism and inspired later generations of religiously motivated social reformers.

Date: Most active 1960s-1970s.

Humanae Vitae

Definition: It is an encyclical issued by Pope Paul VI in 1968 that reaffirmed the Catholic Church’s teaching against artificial birth control, emphasizing that marital love must remain open to life.

Significance: The encyclical had a major impact on Irish American and broader Catholic communities, sparking debate over obedience, modernity, and sexual ethics. Many Catholics, including young adults, struggled with its restrictions, leading to tensions between traditional religious authority and evolving social norms in the 1960s and 1970s. It also reinforced the Church’s influence over family life, gender roles, and moral guidance within Irish American parishes.

Date: Issued July 25, 1968.

Irish Lesbian and Gay Organization (ILGO)

Definition: It was an organization founded by Irish and Irish American lesbians and gay men living in New York City. Its goal was to create a space where one could be both proudly Irish, or Irish American, and openly gay or lesbian, combining ethnic/national identity with sexual orientation.

Significance: It challenged longstanding ideas within many Irish American communities that Irish identity necessarily meant adherence to conservative Catholic social values. Their existence forced a reevaluation of what it meant to be Irish in America, particularly in terms of sexual identity, inclusion, and belonging. Their efforts highlighted internal debates within immigrant and ethnic communities about identity, assimilation, and change. Because many Irish American institutions, especially religious and fraternal ones, rejected homosexuality, its presence exposed tensions between tradition and evolving social values. Its campaign to be included in the major public celebration of Irish American identity, the New York City Saint Patrick’s Day Parade, turned into a broader struggle over who gets to define Irishness. Their repeated applications, leagal challenges, and protests made visible the exclusivity of some older institutions and prompted broader public discussion about inclusion, sexuality, and ethnic identity.

Date: It was founded around 1990. Their most visible activism, applying to join the Saint Patrick’s Day Parade, legal challenges, protests, took place in the early 1990s.

Celtic Tiger

Definition: It refers to the period of rapid economic growth in Ireland from the mid-1990s to the late 200s, fueled by foreign investment, technology, low corporate taxes, and globalization.

Significance: It transformed Ireland from a largely rural, emigration-driven country to a prosperous, urbanized, and globally connected economy. It affected Irish American communities by increasing reverse migration, Irish retuning home for work, and reshaping transatlantic ties, as U.S. businesses invested in Ireland and new waves of Irish professionals moved internationally. The period also sparked debates about social change, inequality, and cultrual modernization, as traditional Irish norms were challenged by rapid economic development.

Date: Mid-1990s to late 2000s.

Riverdance

Definition: It is a theatrical show featuring traditional Irish music and step dancing, originally performed as an interval act at the 1995 Eurovision Song Contest and later expanded into a full-length stage production.

Significance: It helped popularize Irish cultural expression worldwide, turning traditional Irish dance and music into a global phenomenon. It contributed to pride in Irish identity and strengthened cultural connections for the Irish diaspora, including Irish Americans. The show also exemplifies how modern entertainment can commercialize and celebrate ethnic heritage, boosting tourism, media representation, and cultural exports from Ireland.

Date: Premiered 1994, Eurovision interval act; full stage production 1995 onward.