Anatomy and physiology ch 1 - 3

All materials, living or non-living, are composed of ______, which consist of ______. Smaller pieces of atoms are called ______. small molecules combine to make _____.

chemicals, atoms, subatomic particles, macromolecules

Characteristics of Life

1. Growth: Increase in cell number and size and increase in

body size

2. Reproduction: Production of new cells and organisms

3. Responsiveness: Reaction to a change inside or outside of the body

4. Movement: Change in body position or location; motion of internal organs

5. Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in a living system: Energy production and nutrient cycling

6. Respiration: Making energy. Most organisms do it by taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide

7. Digestion: Breaking down food into usable nutrients for absorption into the blood

8. Circulation: Moving chemicals and cells through the body fluids • Excretion: Removing waste products

Homeostasis

maintenance of a stable environment

Homeostasis mechanisms

self regulating systems that monitor aspects of the internal environment and correct as needed

3 parts-

• receptor (thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors): detects and provides info abt the stimuli

• control center (hypothalamus, pituitary gland): decision maker that maintains the set point

• effector: muscle or gland that responds to the control cneter and causes the necessary change in the internal environment

most common homeostatic mechanism

negative feedback

negative feedback

when effectors return conditions toward normal range and is called negative because the response moves the variable in the opposite direction of the deviation from the set point

ex. body temp, blood pressure, glucose level in the blood

positive feedback

when the change/deviation is amplified instead of reversed, and the activity of the effector is increased initially instead of decreased

• short lived

• produces unstable conditions that dont seem like they will lead to homeostasis but they will

• Ex. blood clotting, labor and delivery, lactation, ovulation

homeostatic imbalances

• disorder - disturbance of structure and/or function

• disease - illness with symptoms and signs

signs vs symptoms

signs are observable and measurable changes, symptoms are not apparent to an observer

axial portion

head neck and trunk

• cranial cavity

• vertebral canal (spinal cavity)

• thoracic cavity - houses lungs and thoracic viscera

• abdominopelvic cavity - contains abdominal and pelvic viscera

tissue

specialized cells that assemble into layers or masses that have specific functions and form organs and organ systems

diaphragm

separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

mediastinum is the region between lungs in the _______ cavity which contains the ______, _______, ________, and _______.

thoracic cavity, heart, esophagus, trachea, and thymus gland

abdominal cavity extends from the _______ to ______ and contains the _____, ______, ______, _______, and ______.

diaphragm, top of the pelvis, stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys, small intestine, and most of large intestine

pelvic cavity enclosed by _____, and contains _____, _____, __________

pelvic bones, end of large intestine, urinary bladder and internal reproductive organs

membrane

• inner layer - made up of connective tissue

• outer layer - epitheleum

function: cover organs or other structures and lines the insides of hollow spaces or cavities

types of membranes

1. serous - secrete serous fluid (lubricates and protects organs and tissues)

2. mucous - secrete mucous and line cavities that open to the outside

pressure gradient

when substance like blood and air move from high to low presssure and vv

concentration gradient

when substances move from areas of high concentration to low and vv

permeability

when a substance can pass through a cell membrane it is permeable

serous membrane

secrete serous fluid (lubricates and protects organs and tissues)

2 layers:

• visceral layer - inner, covers an organ

• parietal layer - outer, lines the wall of a cavity

e.g. visceral and parietal pleura around the lungs

superficial vs deep

close to body surface vs more internal

caudal vs cranial

towards the tail vs towards the head

cephalic

sometimes used for pertaining to the head

rostral

pertaining to the beak or snout in embryology

sagittal sections

• midsaggital section - divides into equal left and right portions

• parasagittal section - divides into unequal left and right portions

cross section vs oblique section vs longitudinal section

cut across the structure, angular cut, lengthwise cut

intergumentary system

major organs: skin hair nails sweat glands and sebaceous glands

function: protects tissues, regulates body temp, supports sensory receptors

skeletal

parts - bones, ligaments, cartilages

function - provides framework, protects soft tissues, provides attachments for muscles, produces blood cells, store inorganic salts

muscular system

parts - muscles

functions- causes movements, maintain posture, produce body heat

nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs

• detect changes, receive and interpret sensory info, stimulate muscles and glands

endocrine

glands that secrete horomones (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal glands, and thymus)

• control metabolic activity of the bodily structures

cardiovascular

heart, arteries, capillaries, veins

• move blood through blood vessels and transport substances through the body

lymphatic

lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen

• return tissies fluid to the blood, caarry certain absorbed food molecules, defend the body against infection

digestive system

mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestines

• receive, break down, and absorb food and eliminate unabsorbed material

respiratory system

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

• intake and output of air, exchange of gases between air and blood

urinary

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

• remove wastes from blood, maintain water and electrolyte blaance, store and eliminate urine

reproductive

male - scrotum, testes, epidymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis female - ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva

• produce and maintain sperm cells, transfer sperm cells into the female reproductive tract, produce and maintain egg cells, receive sperm cells, support developement of an embryo and function in the birth process

body functions that require chemicals include..

• neuronal function

• metabolism

• muscle movement

ionic bonds

formed when electrons are transfered from one atom to another atom; causes atom to have a charge

covalent bonds

electron sharing; equal number of electrons creates equally shared charges so no charge to molecule

polar molecules

result from unequal sharing of electrons in covalent bonds

hydrogen bonds

formed btwn adjacent water molecules and are important for protein and nucleic acid structure

acids

substances that release hydrogen ions in water when dissociated (occurs by ionically bonded substance is put in water and attracted to hydrogen atoms which “pulls apart’ the substance)

bases

substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen atoms

salts

electrolytes; formed from a reaction of an acid with a base

higher H+ concentration means…

lower PH and higher acidity

Lower H+ concentration means…

higher PH and lower acidity (more basic)

inorganic molecules

• dont contain carbon - hydrogen bonds

• water, carbon dioxide, inorganic salts

role of water in the human body (4)

• 2/3 weight of an adult human

• required for most metabolic reactions

• transport

• heat regulation

organic molecules

• contain carbon and hydrogen

e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

carbohydrates

source of cellular energy, contain C, H and O

classifications -

• monosaccharides - glucose, fructose

• disaccharides - sucrose, lactose

• polysaccharides - complex carbohydrates like starch glycogen and cellulose

lipids

organic molecules that are mostly insoluble in water. They include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids

• important for energy, cell structure, protection, temperature regulation, hormone production, and vitamin absorption

phospholipids

consist of 1 glyceral, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate

have hydrophillic and hydrophobic ends

major component of cell membranes

proteins

include structural materials (like cytoskeleton), horomones (like insulin), enzymes (like alcohol dehydrogenase) and antibodies (immune system fighting)

4 levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quarternary

amino acids

the building blocks of proteins, joined together by peptide bonds that form between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the adjacent amino acid

nucleotide

building block of a nucleic acid

3 parts:

phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) and nitrogenous base

DNA vs RNA

double chain of nucleotides that carries genetic ocde vs single chain of nucleotides that aids in protein synthesis

synthesis reaction

more complex chemical structure is formed

• A + B → AB

decomposition reaction

chemical bonds are broken to form a simpler chemical structure

• AB → A + B

Exchange reaction

chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed

• AB + CD → AD + CB

reversible reaction

the products change back to the reactants

• A + B → AB

hydrolysis reactions

chemical reaction that uses water to break a larger molecule into smaller molecules. The word hydrolysis basically means “breaking apart with water.”

• Carbohydrates → broken down into simple sugars such as glucose.

• Proteins → broken down into amino acids.

• Fats (lipids) → broken down into fatty acids and other smaller molecules.

• ATP → hydrolysis releases energy that cells can use to perform work.

dehydration synthesis

to put together by the removal of the equivalent of a water molecule

cells are measured in _____

micrometers

_____ refers to the specialized characteristics of cells

differentiation

______ enable a cell to conduct electrical impulses from one part of the body to another

nerve cell’s long extensions or axon

epitheleal cells are organized in a sheet like manner in order to

protect underlying cells of organs, blood vessels, bodily cavities

contractile proteins

enable muscle contraction by interacting with one another to generate force and movement; responsible for shortening and relaxation of muscle fibers

• alignment with muscle cells allows them to contract, pulling closer together the structures to which they attach

3 major parts of a cell

1. nucleus - contains genetic material and directs cell activity

2. cytoplasm - consists of organelles with specific functions, suspended in a liquid called cytosol

3. cell membrane - outer boundary of the cell which is selectively permeable, consists of mainly lipids and proteins with some carbohydrates

cell membrane functions (3)

• maintains the integrity of the cell and separates cytosol (intracellular fluid) from extracellular fluid

• selectively permeable - regulates the entry and exit of substances

• signal transduction - permits the cell to receive and respond to messages

phospholipid bilayer

cell membrane framework

parts:

• water soluble (hydrophilic) heads form the surfaces

• water insoluble (hydrophobic) tails form the interior

• *****bilayer is permeable to lipid-soluble substances, but not water-soluble substances

cholestorol function in cell membrane

stabilizes the membrane, helps keep it impermeable to water soluble substances

carbohydrates function in cell membrane

cell recogniton and interaction, self markers

proteins function in cell membrane

Pores, channels, receptors, enzymes, cell contact and identification, CAMs (Cell Adhesion Molecules)

Fluid mosaic properties

properties that some lipids and proteins have that allows them to move

receptors

type of membrane protein that respond to extracellular signals

pores, channels, carriers function

type of membrane protein that transport small molecules and ions and transduce signals

enzymes

type of cell membrane protein that catlyzes chemical reactions

cell surface proteins

cell membrane proteins that establish self

cellular adhesion molecules

type cell membrane protein that enable cells to stick to each other

6 levels of body organization

• chemical

• cellular

• tissue

• organ

• organ system level

• organism level

nucleotide is made up of one of 4 nitrogenous bases…

• adenine

• thymine

• cytosine

• guanine

2 strands of DNA are held together by..

hydrogen bonds

complimentary base pairing

• adenine to thymine

• guanine to cytosine

stages of DNA replication

1. separation - DNA is separated by enzyme helicase

2. elongation - each original strand becomes a template for a complementary strand and polymerase enzyme brings complementary nucleotides to template strand to make new strand

3. termination - 2 sets of DNA strands, polymerase scans for mistakes in replication

somatic cells

cells that divide regularly through the process of mitosis; include all cells in body except germ cells which create eggs and sperm

• 2 copies of chromosome (1 from each parent)

• diploid cells - 23 sets of double chromosomes

germ cells

divide by meiosis to create haploid cells which contain 23 single chromosomes

mutations in ion channels

genes that control protein that corresponds with channel is muatated, results in:

Na+ channels - inability to feel pain or extreme conditions

K+ channels - disrupt electrical activity of the heart or impair hearing

Cl- channels - cause of cystic fibrosis

receptor proteins

cell membrane protein that allows cell to respond to extracellular signals

pores, channels, and carrier proteins

cell membrane proteins that allow transport of small molecules and ions; transduce signals

cell surface proteins

on surface of cell that help identify other cells and other cells idenitfy it as non - foreign

How do cell adhesion molecules, cell adhesion receptors, selectins, and integrins work together with leukocytes?

• CAM - protein that helps cell stick to something

• Cell adhesion receptor - recognizes binding partner to mediate adhesion

• selectin - cell adhesion receptor that sticks leukocyte to capillary by guidance of CAM

• integrin - cell adhesion receptor that direct blood cells through capillary walls to infection sites

cytoplasm

contains cytosol (fluid) and organelles (specifc functions) and cytoskeleton (supporting framework of protein rods and tubules)

endoplasmic reticulum

membrane bound sacs, canals, and vessicles

ribosomes

organelles that are tiny spheres composed of protein and RNA that provide structural support and enzymic activity for protein synthesis

protein synthesis

occurs in the cytoplasm

1. Transcription - mRNA synthesis - info from DNA of gene is synthesized via polymerase binding to promoter and moving down the strand to form mRNA molecule

2. Translation - carries DNA info on how to build polypeptide from nucleus to cytoplasm

3. 
   

cell cycle

• interphase - cell not dividing, includes G0 phase (resting phase performing normal functions), and G1 (growth phase), S (synthesis) phase (DNA replication), G2 (preparation for mitosis)

• mitosis - sister chromatids pulled apart so each cell has 1 copy DNA

• cytokinesis

mitosis

• prophase - DNA condense to chromosomes and spindles begin to reach for opposite poles; nuclear envelope breaks down

• prometaphase - condensing continues, kineticores appear at centromeres and spindles attach to them at either end cell

• metaphase - chromosomes lined up and spindle fibers attach to chromatids

• anaphase - centromeres split and pulled to opposite ends, cell begins elongating

• telophase -

• cytokinesis