changing family patterns

changes in family and household patterns in the last 50 years

-number of nuclear families has fallen
-divorce rates increased
-fewer first marriages, but more re-marriages
-people are marrying later in life
-civil partnerships
-increased cohabitation
-more lone parent families

changing patterns of divorce

number of divorces doubled between 1961 and '69, and doubled again by '72. the upward trend continued, peaking at 1993 with 165,000. then it fell to 118,000 in 2012

how many marriages end up in divorce?

40%

who most commonly files for divorce?

about 65% of women are now the ones to file for divorce which contrasts that in 1946 only 37% of women filed.

what is the most common reason for a woman to be granted a divorce?

unreasonable behaviour of her spouse

couples whose marriages have a great risk include-

those who marry young, have a child before they marry or cohabit, and those where one or both partners had been married before

reasons for the increase in divorce

changes in the law, declining stigma and changing attitudes, secularisation, rising expectations of marriage, womens increased financial independence, feminist explanations and modernity and individualisation

explain how changes in the law had an increase on divorce

divorce used to be hard to obtain in the 19th century, especially for women. but now we have laws such as; equalising the grounds, widening the grounds, making divorce cheaper.

other solutions to the problem of an unhappy marriage

desertation- where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married
legal separation- where a court separates the financial and legal affairs of the couple but where they remain married and are not free to re-marry
empty shell marriage- where the couple continue to live under the same roof but remain married in name only.

what is stigma?

a negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship.

explain why declining stigma and attitude has increased divorce rates?

in the past divorcees were stigmatised. for example, churches condemned divorce and wouldn't marry divorcees. as divorce becomes more socially acceptable, couples become more willing to divorce

Mitchell and Goody

they note that an important change since the 1960's has been the rapid decline in the stigma attached to divorce

what is secularisation?

the decline in the influence of religion in society

explain why secularisation has increased the divorce rates ?

many sociologists argue that religious institutions and ideas are losing their influence and society is becoming more secular. As a result, the traditional opposition of churches to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings

why have many churches began to soften their views on divorce?

they fear losing credibility from large sections of the public and with their own members

explain why rising expectations of marriage increased the divorce rate? (Ronald Fletcher)

he argues that the higher expectations people place on marriage today are a major cause as higher expectations make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage. this is linked to the ideology of romantic love which is the belief that for each individual there is a Mr or Mrs right.

Graham Allan and Graham Crow

'love, personal commitment and intrinsic satisfaction are now seen as the cornerstones of marriage. The absence of these feelings is itself justification for ending the relationship.'

Fletcher's (and functionalist) optimistic POV

he points to the continuing popularity of marriage. most adults marry, and the high rate of re-marriages after divorce shows that although divorcees may have become dissatisfied with a particular person, they have not rejected marriage as an institution

feminism POV on divorce

feminist critics argue this is 'too rosy a view'. they argue that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce

criticism of functionalist view

functionalists fail to explain why It is mainly women who seek divorce

explain why womens increased financial dependance increases divorce rates?

-women today are much more likely yo be in paid work. the amount of women working rose from 53% in 1971 to 72% in 2020
-equal pay and anti discrimination laws have helped to narrow the pay gap
-girls greater success in education now helps them achieve better paid jobs
-the availability of welfare benefits means that women no longer have to remain financially dependant on they husbands

Allan and Crow

they argue that 'marriage is less embedded within the economic system'. there are fewer family firms and the family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are not dependent on each other economically. women now have their own sources of income therefore do not have to tolerate conflict or absence of love

feminist explanations of increase in divorce

feminists argue that married women today bear a dual burden. this has created a new source of conflict and this is leading to higher divorce rates than in the past. feminists also argue the change of women in the private sphere of family and personal relationships has been slow. they also argue marriage remains patriarchal with men benefiting from wives triple shift

Arlie hoschild- feminism view

argues that for many women the home compares unfavourably with work. at work women feel valued but at homes mens continuing resistance to do housework is frustrating and makes marriage less stable. also, now that both partners work it leaves less time for the emotion work needed to address the problems

Wendy Sigle- Rushton (feminist view)

mothers who have a dual burden are more likely to divorce than non working mothers in marriages with a traditional division of labour but where the husband of a working wife is actively involved in housework, the divorce rate is the same as couples with a traditional division of labour

Cooke and Gash (feminist view)

found no evidence that working women are more likely to divorce. they argue that this is because working has now become the accepted norm for married women

radical feminist Jessie Bernard

observe that many women feel a growing dissatisfaction with patriarchal marriage. she sees the rising divorce rate, and the fact that most petitions come from women, as evidence of their growing acceptance of feminist ideas: women are becoming conscious of patriarchal oppression and more confident about replacing rejecting it

explain why modernity and individualisation made the divorce rate increase (Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens)

they argue that in modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals. As a result each individual becomes free to pursue his or her own self interest. Relationships then become more fragile because individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner if the relationship fails to deliver personal fulfilment.

Golden- the pure relationship

one that exists solely to satisfy each others needs and not out of a sense of duty, tradition or for the sake of the children. this results in higher divorce rates.

in what other ways does modern society encourage individualism

women as well as men are now expected to work and are encouraged to pursue their own individual career ambitions. this can cause conflicts of interest between spouses and contribute to marital breakdown.

New Right meaning of high divorce rate

they see a high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family, which they regard as vital to social stability. in their view a high divorce rate creates a growing underclass of welfare dependent female lone parents who are a burden on the state and it leaves boys without the role model they need.

feminist view of the meaning of high divorce rates

see a high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the patriarchal nuclear family and oppression

postmodernist and individual thesis view of the meaning of high divorce rates

see a high divorce rate as showing that individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs. they see it as a major cause of greater family diversity

functionalist view on the meaning of high divorce rates

argue that a high divorce rate is not necessarily a threat to marriage as a social institution. it is simply the result of peoples higher expectations of marriage today. the high rate of remarriage shows peoples commitment to continuing to the idea of marriage.

interactionist view on the meaning of high divorce rates

aim to understand what divorce means to the individual. David Morgan argues that we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce, because ever individuals interpretation is differently

Mitchell and Goody- interactionist on high divorce rate

one of their interviewees described the day her father left her as the best day of her life, whereas another said that she had never recovered from her father deserting the family

the personal life perspective view on high divorce rates

they accept that divorce can cause problems, such as financial difficulties and lack of daily contact between children and non-resident parents.

Carol Smart (PLP) view on high divorce rates

she argues that divorce has become normalised and that family life can adapt to it without disintegrating. Rather than seeing divorce as a major social problem, we should see it as just one transition amongst others in the life course

changes within marriage over the years

-fewer people are marrying: marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920's
-more remarriages
-people marrying later
-couples less likely to marry in church

reasons for change in number of first marriages

1. changing attitudes to marriage- less pressure and more freedom for individuals to change the type of relationship they want
2. secularisation- religious influence declines
3. declining stigma attached to alternatives of marriage
4. changes in position of women
5. fear of divorce- 40% of marriages now end in divorce

reasons for change in pattern on remarriages

main reason for the increase of remarriage is the rise in the number of divorces. the two have grown together so that the rising number of divorce provides a supply of people to remarry

reasons for change in pattern of age when marrying

the age at which couples marry is rising because young people are postponing marriage in order to spend longer in full time education or get a career first. another reason is that couples are now cohabiting for a long time before marriage

reasons for change in patterns of religious weddings

couples now are less likely to have religious weddings for two main reasons: secularisation, many religions refuse to marry divorcees

cohabitation

an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together

reasons for increase in cohabitation

-decline in stigma attached to premarital sex
-the young are more likely to accept cohabitation
-increased career opportunities for women may mean they have financial independence
-secularisation

Robert Chester- cohabitation
and Ernestina Coast

he argues for most people cohabitation is part of the process of getting married and Coast says 75% of cohabiting couples expect to marry

trial marriage

an arrangement in which people live together to find out what marriage might be like

Andre Bejin- cohabitation

he argues cohabitation among some young people represents a conscious attempt to create a more personally negotiated and equal relationship than conventional, patriarchal marriage

Shelton and John- cohabitation

they found that women who cohabit do less housework than their married counterparts

same sex couples- stonewall

the campaign for gay rights estimates that 5-7% of the adult population have gay relationships

Jeffrey Weeks- chosen families

he argues that increased social acceptance may explain a trend towards same sex cohabitation and stable relationships that resemble those found among heterosexuals. He sees gay couples as creating families based on the idea of 'friendship and kinship' where friendships become a type of kinship

Kath Weston- quasi marriage

she describes same sex marriage as 'quasi marriage' and notes that same sex couples are now deciding to cohabit as stable partners. she contrasts this with the gay lifestyle in the 1970's

Allan and Crow- same sex marriage

they argue that because of the absence of a framework until recently, same sex partners have had to negotiate their commitment and responsibilities more than married couples. this may have made same sex couples more flexible and stable

reasons for one person household increase

-the increase in separation and divorce has increased this, especially in men under 65. this is because following divorce children are more likely to live with their mother
-decline in those marrying and the trend towards those marrying later
-too few partners available for their age group

Creative singlehood

The deliberate choice to live alone

LAT's - Duncan and Phillips

they found that one in 10 adults are living apart together- this is a significant relationship but not married or cohabiting

reasons for LAT

they wanted to keep their own house, because of a previous troubled relationship or it was too early to cohabit

reasons for changes in childbearing

-decline in stigma and increase in cohabitation for example only 28% of 25-34 year olds now think that marriage should come before parenthood
-women now have more options than just motherhood many are seeking to establish themselves in a career before starting a family or instead of having children at all

reasons for increase in lone parent families

due to increase in divorce and separation and due to the increase of never married women having children

why do lone parent families tend to be headed by mothers?

- the widespread belief that women are suited to an expressive or nurturing role
- the fact that divorce courts usually give custody to mothers
- men may be less willing to give up work for their children
- single by choice

Jean Renvoize- single by choice

she found that professional women were able to support their children without the fathers involvement

Ellis Cashmore- single by choice

found that some working class mothers with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner, often because they had experienced abuse

Charles Murray (NR)- lone parenthood, welfare state and poverty

he sees the growth of lone parent families as resulting from n over generous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and children. he argues its created a 'perverse incentive', it rewards irresponsible behaviour such as having children without being able to care for them

Dependency culture (Charles Murray)

the welfare state creates a dependency culture in which people assume that the state will support them and their children

Murray's solution to a dependency culture

abolish welfare benefits

NR critics of Charles Murray

they believe that welfare benefits are far from generous and lone parent families are much more likely to be in poverty.

reasons that lone parent families are more likely to be in poverty

- lack of affordable childcare prevents them from working
- inadequate welfare benefits
-most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men
- failure of fathers to pay maintenance

patterns in step families

-stepfamilies are formed when lone parents form new partnerships, thus the factors causing an increase in lone parents are also responsible for the creation of stepfamilies
-more children in step families are from the woman's previous relationship because when marriages break up children are more likely to remain with the mother
-stepparents are at a greater risk of poverty because there are often more children and because the stepfather may have children to support from a previous relationship
-some of the tensions faced by stepfamilies may be the result of a lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in such families

Alison Shaw- ethnic differences in family patterns

these patterns continue to change as they interact with the changing culture of Britain as a whole.

Berthoud- ethnic differences in family patterns

argued that British culture is becoming more individualistic and that this has an impact on patterns of family life among different ethnic groups. he compared family patterns among three ethnic groups; British south asians, black British carribeans, and white British

British South Asian families

had a more traditional family life than other groups, with higher rates of marriage and low rates of cohabitation and divorce. couples married younger and fertility rates were higher. arranged marriage was common among muslims and Sikhs.

white British families

lower marriage and fertility rates, later marriage, smaller families, and high rates of cohabitation and divorce. arranged marriages were unknown of. once marries setting up a separate household was the norm.

black British Caribbean families

lower marriage rates and fertility rates similar to white British families. higher rates of lone parenthood and high rates of intermarriage, especially white British partners.

old fashion values vs modern individualism- Berthoud

in Berthoud's view despite the differences between these groups, all three were moving in the same direction: away from families based on old fashioned values and towards ones with modern individualism. Caribbean families are ahead of the view whilst south asian families are behind.

changes in British Asian families

changes include; rising rates of lone parenthood, growing acceptance of divorce, becoming less distinctive, sons choosing to marry outside of their ethnic group

Qureshi et Al- British Asian families

found that first generation migrants had earlier been strongly opposed to divorce but there is now a growing acceptance of it

Black British families

key feature is low rate of marriage and higher rates of divorce. there is a higher rate of lone parents and lower rate of married couples

Tracy Reynolds- lone parenthood in black families

she argues that the statistics are misleading as many lone parents are actually in a stable, supportive non-cohabiting relationship. she emphasises the 'fluid and adaptive nature' of Black family relationships and notes that arrangements often transition into cohabitation or marriage.

Heidi Mirza- lone parenthood in Black families

argues that the higher rate of lone parents in black families also reflects the high value that black women place on their independence. (modern individualism)

Nickie Charles- extended family

his study of Swansea found the classic 3 generational family all living under the one roof is 'all but extinct'.

Peter Wilmott- extended family

he argues it continues to exist as a 'dispersed extended family', where relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent visits and phone calls

Mary Chamberlain- extended family

she studied black british Caribbean families and found that despite being geographically separated they continue to provide support. she desires them as 'multiple nuclear families' with close and frequent contact.

Colin Bell- extended family

his study in Swansea found that both working class and middle class families had emotional bonds with kin and relied on them for support; among middle class there was more financial help from father to son and working class families had more frequent contact and there was more domestic help from other to daughter

Beanpole family- Julia Brannan

it is a three or more generational family that doesn't involve aunties, cousins or uncles.

reasons for beanpole family

there had been a sharp decline in both support and contact between brothers and sisters

demographic changes that led to beanpole family

increased life expectancy- more surviving grandparents
smaller family sizes- people have fewer siblings and less ties

Janet Finch and Jennifer Mason- obligations to relatives

they found that over 90% of people had given or received financial help and about half had cared for a sick relative. they also found that there is more expected of females than males.

Cheap- obligations to relatives

he notes that where personal care for an elderly woman is needed, a daughter in law is preferred if the husband is not available. Sons are rarely chosen as caregivers and women are rarely chosen as people to provide money