World History Semester 1 Final Review

Agricultural Revolution

• when humans stopped hunting/gathering and began to farm and domesticate animals

• around 10,000 BCE

• originated in the Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer

Civilization

• complex society characterized by advanced cities, organized governments, specialized workers, complex institutions, record keeping, and improved technology

• began around 4,000 - 3,000 BCE

• first civilizations - Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, China

Advanced city

• place with a large population and a center of trade for a larger area

Specialized worker

• someone skilled at a certain type of work

• farmers, priests, soldiers, etc

Complex institutions

• things that maintain social order

• government, religion, and education

Record keeping

• a way to keep track of transactions, laws, and historical events

Improved technology

• innovations that increased efficiency in communication, transportation, and production in society

• ex: pottery wheel - used for vases, bowls, etc

Sahara Desert

• large desert in North Africa with sand dunes and dry conditions

Savannas

• grassland that is home to wildlife and used for grazing and agriculture

• can be swampy or dry

• African civilizations

Nomadic lifestyle

• way of life where humans move from place to place in search of food, water, and other resources

• instead of settling in one spot

• indigenous peoples, Mongol Empire, Bedouins

Animism

• the belief that there are spirits within natural objects (animals/plants) and phenomena

• practiced in traditional and indigenous religions

• indigenous peoples of Africa, Native American cultures

• shows a connection between humans and nature

Griots/oral tradition

• people who preserved historical events and traditions by speaking about them and telling stories

• Mali Empire

Migration

• movement of people from one region to another

• often influenced by climate, resources, conflict, or opportunity

• Bantu migration, Indo-European migrations, and the Mongol Empire which caused others to migrate because of its conquests and trade

Push-pull factors

• things that bring people out of their homeland (push)

• things that attract them to a new area (pull)

Bantu-speaking peoples

• group of people who migrated across Africa

• spreading their language, culture, and ironworking technology

• significantly influenced the regions in which they settled - Sub-Saharan Africa

• from around 1000 BC to 500 AD

Fertile Crescent

• rich soils and agriculture led to Mesopotamia developing here

• located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

• known for its early civilizations: Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians

City-state (Middle East)

• self-governing urban center

• own government, social structure, gods

• Sumerian civilization used these

Cuneiform

• one of earliest systems of writing

• developed by the Sumerians

• used wedge-shaped symbols on clay tablets

• used for record keeping, communication

Ziggurat

• large temple complex, built in the center of each Sumerian city-state

• many people went there to pray

• it served as a religious and administrative center

Cultural diffusion

• spread of cultural beliefs, ideas, and technologies from one society to another through trade, migration, or conquest

• knowledge in math, medicine, astronomy

• origins of Judaism, Christianity, Islam

• art - mosaics and sculptures

• 3500 - 500 BCE

• was big in Middle East but also Ancient Greece

Hammurabi

• Babylonian king (Babylonian civilization)

• known for creating one of the first written legal codes, the Code of Hammurabi

• Code of Hammurabi focused on aspects of society: family law, property rights, trade, civil rights. Emphasized justice and “eye for an eye” principle

• he strengthened Babylonian state - expanded, established central government, unified Mesopotamian city-states

• about 1792 - 1750 BCE

Empire

• political unit where one state or ruler controls multiple territories or peoples, often through conquest

• Roman Empire, Persian Empire, Mongol Empire, Ottoman Empire, British Empire

Cyrus

• founder of the Persian Empire

• known for his tolerance of conquered peoples and innovative administrative policies

• mid 6th century BCE: about 559 BCE - 530 BCE

Darius

• Persian ruler

• became king in 522 BCE after Cyrus’s son Cambyses II

• expanded the empire, standardized currency, and built the Royal Road for efficient communication

• ruled from 522 - 486 BCE

Satraps

• provincial governors in the Persian Empire

• ruled locally under the king's authority and made the empire more efficient

• during the empire: about 550 - 330 BCE

Royal Road

• vast network of roads built by the Persian Empire

• facilitated trade, communication, and military movement

• during Darius’s reign: 522 - 486 BCE

• continued to be used until 330 BCE when the empire fell to Alexander the Great

Zoroastrianism

• ancient Persian religion based on teachings of Zoroaster

• introduced Monotheism

• emphasizing the struggle between good (Ahura Mazda) and evil (Ahriman)

• emphasis on good deeds, good words, good thoughts

• around 6th century BCE (Persian Empire)

Torah

• central religious text of Judaism

• consists of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible

• outlines laws, teachings, moral principles of Jewish society

• relationship with God and ethical behavior

• Hebrew civilization

Temple or synagogue

• places of worship in Judaism

• temples being ancient central places of worship and synagogues serving local congregations

• First temple built in Jerusalem by King Solomon: central place of worship for Israelites. Sadly destroyed by Babylonians in 586 BCE.

• Synagogues became primary places of worship after second temple destroyed in 70 CE

Rabbi

• Jewish religious teacher and leader

• responsible for interpreting Jewish law and traditions

• Rabbis emerged more during 1st century CE

Abraham

• considered the patriarch of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

• he established a covenant with God - promised to be the father of a great nation

• lifetime dates are controversial but around 2000 BCE - 1800 BCE

Israelites

• ancient people who formed the Jewish nation and followed the teachings of the Torah

• Famous events:

  • Egyptian Exile: they settled in Egypt during famine and became enslaved

  • Exodus: Moses led them out of Egypt and slavery to establish their land, and they wandered in the desert for 40 years

• Overall lasted from 2000 - 586 BCE

Covenant

• sacred agreement or promise

• the covenant between God and Abraham in Jewish tradition - where Abraham promised to be the father of a great nation

Ten Commandments

• set of moral and religious laws given to Moses by God, foundational to Jewish and Christian ethics

• given to Moses during Israelites’ Exodus

• the Ten Commandments (paraphased):

1. No other gods before God

2. No images or representations of God or an idol

3. Don’t take the name of the Lord your God in vain

4. Remember to keep Sabbath holy

5. Respect your parents

6. Don’t murder

7. Don’t commit adultery

8. Don’t steal

9. Don’t bear false witness against your neighbor

10. Don’t covet your neighbor’s house

Monotheism

• the belief in a single god, foundational to religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

• originated around the 14th century BCE or 13th century BCE (from the Israelites and the Ten Commandments)

• unified belief and understanding of God

Jesus (Christ)

• central figure of Christianity, believed by Christians to be the Son of God and the Messiah

• believed to have lived during first century CE

• crucified around 30 - 36 CE and somehow disappeared

Crucifixion

• Roman method of execution in which Jesus was put to death - being hung on a cross

• central to Christian belief in his sacrifice for humanity's sins

• Jesus’ crucifixion took place around 30 - 36 CE, scholars agree it likely happened during the Passover festival

Bible (Old and New Testament)

• sacred scripture of Christianity

• consisting of the Old Testament (shared with Judaism) and the New Testament

• Old Testament written between 1400 - 400 BCE

  • history of Israel, laws, poetry, prophecies

  • Moses, David, prophets

• New Testament written in first century CE: about 50 - 100 CE

  • life, teachings, death, resurrection of Jesus Christ

  • early Christian church

  • letters of Paul and Gospels

Priest

• religious leader authorized to perform sacred rituals and offer guidance in Christianity and other religion

• after Jesus’ resurrection, apostles and their followers began to establish Christian communities. Priests emerged in these early churches

• from the 5th century and later (Middle ages), priests got more established in their roles in the RCC (Roman Catholic Church)

Messiah

• savior or liberator expected by the Jewish people

• Christians believe this is Jesus because he sacrificed for humanity’s sins and fulfilled the prophecies

Disciples

• followers of Jesus who learned from and spread his teachings after his death

• important figures in the early Christian church after Jesus’ resurrection

Apostles

• the primary early Christian missionaries, including Jesus' closest disciples

• during Jesus primarily: learning from and spreading his teachings

• laid the foundation of Christianity after Jesus’ resurrection

Paul

• apostle who played a key role in spreading Christianity beyond Jewish communities through his letters and missions

• converted from Judaism to Christian when he had a vision of Jesus

• about 30 - 65 CE

Pope

• leader of the Roman Catholic Church (RCC)

• makes important decisions, represents church

Democracy

• form of government in which power is determined by citizens, who exercise it through elected representatives or directly

• first known democracy: in Ancient Greece, in Athens

  • around 507 BCE

• Roman Republic - had democratic elements after Athens: 509 - 27 BCE

Citizens vs Subjects

• citizens participate in governance and have rights, while subjects are ruled without direct participation

• citizens: active participates in government

  • right to vote, run for office, make decisions

  • based on birth or legal status

• subjects: under a monarchy or authoritarian regime

  • way less rights, especially not participating in government

  • limited ability to influence laws/policies and expected to follow rules

• this is most commonly associated with Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

City-state/polis (Greece)

• self-governing urban entity typical in ancient Greece

• has its own government and military

• most famous city-states: Athens and Sparta

  • emerging democracy in Athens

• 8th century BCE to 4th century BCE

Pericles

• Athenian statesman who promoted democracy and led Athens during its Golden Age

• lived from about 495 - 429 BCE

• prominent political leader in 461 BCE

• Golden Age of Athens: leader during the height of Athenian democracy and culture

  • especially 450 - 430 BCE

Assembly

• gathering of citizens in a democracy to discuss and decide on laws and policies

  • one of the earliest forms of direct democracy

• in Athens

• only male citizens over the age of 18

• voting by hands or colored stones

Socrates

• Greek philosopher who emphasized questioning and ethics

• known for his Socratic method

  • a way to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas

    • questioning, critical thinking

• lived from about 469 - 399 BCE

  • during Golden Age of Athens, when democracy flourished and arts thrived

• he was put on trial in 399 BCE for corrupting youth

  • sentenced to death and chose to drink poison instead of taking back his beliefs

Parthenon

• temple dedicated to goddess Athena in Athens

• built under leadership of Pericles

• an example of classical Greek architecture

• built between 447 and 432 BCE, during Golden Age of Athens

• impressive columns

• became a symbol of Athenian democracy

Republic

• form of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions

• in ancient Rome

• about 509 to 27 BCE

Senate

• legislative body in the Roman Republic composed of elder statesmen who advised on laws and policies and controlled finances

Patrician

• member of the wealthy, noble class in ancient Rome

• they were born into their role/class

• typically the only ones eligible for high government positions

Plebeian

• commoner in ancient Rome, often with limited political power initially (fewer rights than patricians)

• majority of the population: farmers, laborers, merchants

• could not hold high government positions or fully participate in the political process

• over time, they fought for more rights - formed their own assemblies, gained the right to elect officials to protect their rights

  • eventually gained more equality and influence in society

Pax Romana

• period of peace and stability throughout the Roman Empire lasting about 200 years

• about 27 BCE - 180 BCE

• “Pax Romana” translates to “Roman Peace”

  • a time with little military expansion and less internal conflicts

• Emperor Augustus established a strong centralized government and effective administration

• trade flourished, which led to economic growth, cultural exchange, advancements in engineering and architecture

• artistic achievements, literature, spread of culture and law

Colosseum

• large amphitheater in Rome used for gladiatorial games and public spectacles

• people and animals were killed for entertainment - part of Roman culture

• aqueducts built in for water activities

• huge size, impressive design - arches and vaults

• can hold 50,000 - 80,000 people

• built between 70 - 80 CE

• today, it still stands as a symbol of Rome’s architectural and cultural achievements

Aqueduct

• Roman engineering structures that transported water over long distances to cities and towns

• supplied water for drinking, bathing, irrigation, bathrooms, and other things - overall improving public health and sanitation

• the Romans used gravity to move the water since it just flowed through

• some aqueducts had high arches that stood up above the ground

• showed the Romans’ advanced engineering and helped cities thrive

• mostly built between 4th century BCE and 3rd century BCE

Subcontinent

• large, distinguishable part of a continent, such as the Indian subcontinent

• sometimes densely populated

• different culture and language between subcontinents

• different resources - fertile land, minerals, or waterways

• different wildlife in different subcontinents

Monsoon

• seasonal winds that bring heavy rains and influence agriculture in South Asia

• summer monsoon: between June and September. In India, moisture-full winds from the ocean trigger heavy rain, which is great for agriculture

• winter monsoon: from October to April. It brings dry winds from the land, leading to cooler, drier weather

• monsoons are crucial for farming - they provide water for crops. But they can also cause flooding and natural disasters from excessive rainfall

• monsoons impact climate, which in turn impacts temperature, ecosystems, and lifestyles

Harappan civilization

• early urban culture of the Indus Valley known for planned cities and advanced infrastructure

  • well-constructed roads, advanced drainage systems, public baths

• also known as the Indus Valley civilization

• peaked between 2500 and 2000 BCE

• developed urban centers - Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

• declined around 1900 BCE due to climate change or less resources

Mohenjo-Daro

• major city of the Harappan civilization, featuring sophisticated urban planning

  • grid layout with streets laid out in right angles

  • sophisticated drainage systems

  • public buildings

  • houses from baked bricks

  • granaries for storing grain

  • great public bath

• trade with Mesopotamia

• had its own writing script but is still undeciphered

• built around 2500 BCE

Aryans

• Indo-European nomadic peoples who migrated to India and introduced the caste system and Vedic culture

• believed to have migrated to India around 1500 - 1000 BCE

• their arrival marked the beginning of the Vedic period (named after the Vedas)

  • lasted from 1500 - 500 BCE

• they were primarily pastoral and agricultural

  • lived in tribes, practiced cattle herding, settled into farming

• they practiced a polytheistic religion - worshipped different deities/gods related to nature

  • rituals centered around sacrifices

Vedas

• ancient sacred religious texts forming the foundation of Hinduism

• composed in Sanskrit between 1500 - 500 BCE

• passed down orally before being written down

• they cover cosmology, philosophy, ethics and guidance for rituals

Castes

• social groups in Hindu society that are determined by birth and rigidly divided

  • also based on occupation

• Brahmins: highest caste

  • mainly priests and scholars

    • responsible for religious rituals and teaching sacred knowledge

• Kshatriyas: warrior and ruler caste

  • kings and soldiers

    • responsible for protecting the land and governing society

• Vaishyas: merchant and landowner caste

  • involved in agriculture, trade, and commerce - contributing to the economy

• Shudras: lowest caste

  • laborers and service providers

    • performed manual work and provided services to the other castes

• Untouchables: outside of the four main castes

  • experienced severe social discrimination and exclusion

    • assigned dirty tasks - working with leather, handling waste, etc

  • forced to live separately from other castes

    • touching or coming into contact with an untouchable was thought to pollute someone from a higher caste

Polytheism

• the belief in and worship of multiple gods/deities, common in ancient and traditional religions

  • each god might be associated with different aspects of life, nature, or human experience

  • Ex: Hinduism is polytheistic

Karma

• the belief that actions in life determine one's fate in future lives

• found in Buddhism and Hinduism

• good karma - positive actions lead to beneficial outcomes in this life or future lives

• bad karma - negative actions can result in suffering or difficulties later on

Brahman

• the ultimate, unchanging reality or world soul in Hinduism

• considered infinite, formless, and beyond human comprehension

• different from Atman - this is a world soul while Atman is the individual’s soul

Dharma

• one's duty or righteousness according to Hinduism

• the right way of living - one’s responsibilities towards family, society, and the universe

• varies based on age, gender, social class (varna), and situation

• following Dharma is believed to lead to harmony in life, societal stability, and spiritual progress

Reincarnation

• the cycle of rebirth of the soul into a new body or the belief that a soul is reborn into a new body after death

• prevalent in the religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism

• the goal is to learn and grow spiritually and for the soul to reach moksha

Moksha

• attaining knowledge, wisdom, and liberation through and from reincarnation

• getting union with Brahman

• freedom from all suffering, karma, and worldly attachments

• realizing one’s true nature (Atman) and its oneness with the ultimate reality (Brahman)

Atman

• the individual soul in Hindu philosophy

• the true essence of a person - the part that is eternal and unchanging

• different from Brahman - this is the individual’s soul while Brahman is the world soul

Ganges River

• a sacred river in India, central to Hindu spirituality

  • considered sacred - people believe that bathing in its waters purifies the soul and helps achieve moksha

• originates from glaciers in the Himalayas and flows through northern India before it empties into the Bay of Bengal

Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama)

• the founder of Buddhism, who attained enlightenment and taught the path to overcome suffering

• lived around the 6th - 4th centuries BCE in modern-day Nepal and India

• born into royal family, lived a sheltered life

  • protected from suffering until 29 years old, when he went outside for the first time and came across old age, sickness, and death

• sat under a tree and meditated, reached enlightenment after 49 days

• shared his insights - the Four Noble Truths

Enlightenment/nirvana

• Nirvana: a state of liberation and freedom from suffering, the ultimate goal in Buddhism

• Enlightenment: gaining a true understanding of nature and oneself

  • realizing the Four Noble Truths

  • gaining wisdom, compassion, and insight, leading to a higher perspective on life and suffering

Noble Eightfold Path or Middle Way

• Buddhism's guide to ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom, leading to enlightenment

  1. right understanding

  2. right intent

  3. right speech

  4. right action

  5. right livelihood

  6. right effort

  7. right mindfulness

  8. right concentration

Four Noble Truths

• the core teachings of Buddhism explaining the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path to liberation

  1. life is filled with suffering and sorrow

  2. the cause of all suffering is people’s desire for the temporary pleasures of the world

  3. the way to end all suffering is to end all desires

  4. the way to enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold Path, which is called the Middle Way between desires and self-denial

Mauryan Empire

• an ancient Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya, known for its centralized governance

• founded in 321 BCE

• known for unifying most of India under a centralized government

Asoka

• Mauryan emperor who spread Buddhism across Asia following the bloody Kalinga War and promoted peace and tolerance

• ruled from 268 - 232 BCE

Gupta Empire

• an ancient Indian empire noted for advancements in science, art, and mathematics, considered a “Golden Age” of India

• 320 - 550 CE

Oracle bones

• animal bones or shells used by ancient Chinese priests to predict the future

• 1600 - 1046 BCE

Mandate of Heaven

• in Chinese philosophy, the belief that heaven granted emperors the right to rule based on their virtue

• if a ruler became corrupt, they could lose this divine approval

Dynastic cycle

• traditional Chinese political theory that explains the rise and fall of dynasties

• suggests that dynasties are born, rise to power, flourish, decline, and fall

Feudalism (China)

• social hierarchy

  • king, then nobles, then peasants

• king owns all land, grants large pieces to nobles in exchange for loyalty and military support

  • nobles then own the land and have power over peasants living in it

• nobles protect peasants, ensure they paid taxes and provided military service

• peasants worked and produced food. In return, they received protection and a place to live, but part of their harvest had to be given to the nobles

• at first, Feudalism helped maintain social order and stability, but over time it weakened as merchants’ power increased

Confucius

• Chinese philosopher

• 551-479 BCE

• teachings on morality, government, family loyalty, and respect for elders (filial piety)

• shaped Chinese thought and culture

Bureaucracy

• system of government where decisions are made by state officials rather than elected representatives, often involving a hierarchy of offices and specialized roles

Legalism

• Chinese philosophy advocating strict laws and harsh punishments to maintain social order

• was influential during the Qin Dynasty under Shi Huangdi

• 221 - 206 BCE

Autocracy/authoritarian

• system of government where one person or a small group has absolute power without checks or balances

• Shi Huangdi’s rule is an example of autocracy

Filial piety

• central value in Confucianism that emphasizes respect, obedience, and devotion to one's parents and ancestors

Daoism

• Chinese philosophy emphasizing harmony with nature and the Dao ("the Way"), which refers to the natural order of the universe

• founded by Laozi

Shi Huangdi and Qin Dynasty

• Shi Huangdi - founder of the Qin Dynasty, China’s first emperor

  • known for unifying China and initiating the construction of the Great Wall

• Qin Dynasty lasted from 221 - 210 BCE

  • characterized by centralized power, Legalism, and large-scale construction projects like the Great Wall

The Great Wall

• massive fortification built across northern China to protect against invasions from nomadic tribes

• it was expanded significantly during the Qin Dynasty

Han Dynasty

• Chinese dynasty that followed the Qin

  • known for:

  • advancements in technology

  • trade (Silk Roads)

  • establishment of the civil service system

• lasted from 206 BCE – 220 CE

Monopoly

• exclusive control of a commodity or service in a particular market, often by a single entity

• ex: the Han Dynasty had a monopoly on the production of silk

Silk Roads

• ancient network of trade routes connecting China with the West

• facilitated the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas between the Roman Empire, India, and China

Civil service

• system in which government officials are selected based on merit, often through examinations

• this was first implemented in China during the Han Dynasty

Assimilation

• the process by which a group or culture becomes similar to another, often through the integration of one culture into a dominant one

• this occurred during the Han Dynasty with the spread of Chinese culture to conquered peoples

Allah

• the Arabic word for God in Islam, signifying the monotheistic belief in a single, all-powerful deity

Muslim/Islam

• a Muslim is a follower of Islam

  • monotheistic religion founded by the prophet Muhammad in the 7th century

  • based on submission to the will of Allah

Ka'aba

• sacred Islamic shrine in Mecca

  • central to Islamic worship and pilgrimage

  • believed to have been built by Abraham and his son Ishmael

  • Muslims face the Ka'aba during prayer