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van’t Veer & Giner & Sorolla
Problems Addressed
P-hacking: fabricating results
Hypothesizing after results are known
Selective reporting
Key Takeaways:
This is a case for pre-registration, in which researchers specify their hypotheses, methods, and analysis plans before data collection
Pre-registration enhances transparency, reduces bias, and improves the replicability of research findings
Markus (1977)
Problems addressed
Investigating how self-schemata (cognitive generalizations about the self) influence how people process, recall, and interpret self-relevant information
Main takeaways
Process relevant information
Recall past experiences
Resist contradictory feedback
Medvec
Problem Addressed: how we frame and interpret our experiences significantly affects our emotions, possibly more than the actual outcome
Main takeaways
Counterfactual thinking influences emotional responses
Silver medalists compare themselves to gold medalists and feel regret
Bronze medalists compare themselves to those who didn't medal and feel relief
This highlights how subjective comparisons shape our experiences more than objective outcomes
Ross & Sicoly (1979)
Problem Addressed
The paper investigates people’s tendency to overestimate their contributions to shared tasks and experiences
Main takeaways
People recall their contributions more easily than others due to differences in the availability of information
This leads to egocentric bias
The bias addresses perceptions of fairness with individuals believing they contribute more than they do
Fischer et al. (2004)
Women report more intense emotions related to interpersonal relationships, such as sadness, fear, and joy
Men express more socially dominant emotions such as anger and pride in certain cultural contexts
Women in individualistic cultures were more likely to openly express emotions
Gender differences were more pronounced in cultures
Harmon Jones and Harmon Jones
Problem Addressed
The paper explores cognitive dissonance theory, its merit and the evolution throughout the past 50 years
Main takeaways
Over 50 years, research has shown that cognitive dissonance arises most strongly when people feel personally responsible for their inconsistencies and when the inconsistency threatens their self concept
But most importantly, they found sufficient evidence to support the original version of the theory
Social Psychology
The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations. The study on how people think and influence each other.
Kurt Lewins b=f(p+e)
Explains how people and their environment influence behavior
Fundamental Attribution Error
The failure to recognize situational influences on behavior. People instead blame traits.
Channel Factor/Nudge
Certain situational circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface, but can have great consequences for behavior.
ex: Sending reminders for a doctors appointment
ex: leventhal, singer, and jones
increase number of students getting a tetanus shot by showing them scary material or giving them a map on where they need to go for the appointment
Good Samaritan Study
The Good Samaritan Study exemplifies the power of the situation concept.
seminar students were asked to give a short seminar on the Good Samaritan, and they were given a a specific route to the sermon.
Results: People in a rush passed the man compared to people with a lot of time.
This shows that peoples behavior are influenced by their environment.
Construal
Perception of something + interpretation by the mind.
Seeing a candle instead of two people looking at each other
Gesalt Psychology
People perceive objects by an unconscious interpretation of what the object represents as a whole.
Construals and schemas allow Gesalt psychology to function. We use them to form the shape or idea of an image we interpret.
Automatic Processing
We perceive the world quickly, effortlessly, and without conscious thought.
Used with low impact decisions, repeated actions, and when under threat
Controlled Processing
Effortful, deliberate, conscious processing
Used in high impact decisions, new situations, and when something requires focus
Independent Cultures
Dont rely on each other, more solitary
Interdependent Cultures
Collective action, accepting of hierarchy
Differences between observational, archival, survey, and experimental research
Observational: Do not engage with what you are observing, just collect information
Archival: Collecting data using photos, newspapers, records, etc
Survey: Having people answer questions themselves
Experimental: Manipulating a research question to find causal results
Correlational Studies
Works to find out the relationship between two variables
No random assignment; just tests to find a relationship between variables
Experimental Research
Uses independent and dependent variables
Uses random assignment
Easy to be manipulated
Main components of an experiment
Independent Variable- the variable being changed
Dependent Variable- the variable being measured
Control Condition- the condition not being tested
Reliability
The degree to which measurements are consistent over time
Measurement Validity
The degree to which measurements are consistent over time
Internal Validity
Only the manipulated variable could produce the results
a common threat to this is changes within the variable
External validity
Resembles real life situations so results can be generalized to such situations
Random Assignment
Assigning random groups to a condition
Random Sampling
Sampling people at random (everyone in the population has the chance to be chosen for the experiment)
Basic Research
Concerned with trying to understand some phenomenon in its own right
Applied Research
Concerned with solving real world problems
Institutional Review Board
Approves experiments and makes sure they are ethical
Informed Consent
Participants willing to participate in an experiment
Deception Research
Participants are misled about research
The Stanford Prison Experiment
Self Schema
A cognitive structure derived from past experience that represents a persons beliefs and feelings about the self.
We will be quicker processing accepting, and rejecting information about ourselves
Contingencies in Self-Worth
Self Esteem is contingent on success and failures in domains that are important to their self
High self esteem when successful, and vice versa
People who experience negative events will have negative self-esteem
Trait self esteem
An enduring level of regard for yourself
State self esteem
Current level of regard for yourself
Self discrepancy theory
People want to reduce discrepancies between their actual self and ought self
Ideal self
The person you want to be
Ought self
The person you think you should be.
when these dont align, you feel guilty and anxious
Social Comparison Theory
People compare themselves to others to evaluate their own opinions, abilities, and internal states
Upward Comparison
To improve yourself, you compare yourself to those who are better then you.
Downward Comparison
When you want to feel good about yourself, you compare yourself with people who are worse
Why do we engage in social comparisons
There is no clear objective standard
You experience uncertainty about yourself in a particular domain
Better Than Average Effect
Most westerners think they are better than average on most personality traits; most likely to occur for vague traits
we judge others based on their average, but we view ourselves based on our “best”
Driving
Self verification theory
People strive to have stable, accurate beliefs about the self
Swann et al found that our memory is more selective for self-consistent info
This gives us a sense of coherence
Sociometer Hypothesis
An internal subjective index or maker of the extent to which a person is included or looked favorably by others
Helps us assess how we are doing socially
Cultural Differences in Self-Esteem
Women- refer to relationships when destroying self and attuned to external cues
Men- prioritize differences and uniqueness, more attuned to their internal responses
Independent- internal causes of behavior; more solitary
Interdependent- connected with everyone
