UWC Exam 2

Changes in gene expression results in

changes in the way tissue appear

Metaplasia

big and small cells. mixture of cell types. the tissue transforms into a tissue that is usually found in a different area of the body. This is usually seen in esophageal cancer. This is still considered benign. 

Hypertrophy

when the cell’s size increases and it is considered benign.

Hyperplasia

cells grow on top of each other. when the cell number increases and it is considered benign. 

Dysplasia

disorganized. advanced. when there is an abnormal or disorderly growth and it is considered benign. 

Neoplasia

invaded basement membrane. uncontrolled, abnormal growth of tissue, commonly known as a tumor or cancer

Metastasis

Cells enter the bloodstream or lymphatics to travel to other areas of the body. when cancer spreads from one site to a different secondary site. Mechanisms that exist to prevent this are the innate immune system(immediate), adaptive immune system (specific), basement membrane barrier, angiogenesis, and Natural Killer Cells (innate immune system).

Chemotherapy

a systemic, pharmacological cancer treatment that uses cytotoxic drugs to kill, destroy, or halt the division of rapidly proliferating cancer cells throughout the body. By targeting key phases of the cell cycle, these agents treat, manage, or reduce symptoms of cancer and can be administered orally or intravenously. 

Angiogenesis

Build blood vessels to better get nutrients to cancer cells. the physiological process of forming new blood vessels from pre-existing ones, critical for oxygen/nutrient delivery, wound healing, and growth

Proto-oncogene

these genes make the cell cycle go faster. When mutated or expressed more highly than normal they cause high rate through cell cycles. cancer causing.

Surgery

Preferred, high success rate. Removal of tumor, sometimes surrounding tissue.

Radiation

targeting particular areas, usually by machine or implant to elicit cell death mechanisms.

Chemotherapies

Targets fast replicating cells in the body (all of them). Halt cells in M phase, Transcription/Translation, and S phase. Specifically, they halt cells in M phase or S phase or halt gene expression of a process important in both.

Target therapies

Targets particular receptor.

Immunotherapies

Medications that help the immune system recognize cancer cells.

Tumor suppressor

protective genes that regulate cell growth, repair DNA errors, and induce apoptosis (cell suicide) to prevent tumor formation. These genes slow down the cell cycle. when mutated or gene expression is decreased we have increased cell cycle rate.

Chemotherapy is___________ in the cells that it impacts and causes hair loss because it___________. 

non-specific; kills fast-replicating cells like hair cells.

changes in gene expression results in

changes in the way tissues appear

Metaplasia means

a cell type that is found outside of its normal environment.

Histone acetylation

an epigenetic mechanism that adds acetyl groups to histone proteins, relaxing the chromatin structure and turning genes "on."

DNA methylation

a crucial epigenetic mechanism involving the addition of a methyl group to DNA (typically cytosine), which usually represses gene expression without altering the underlying sequence.

how histone acetylation impact gene expression

Increasing of this gene becomes more available for RNA polymerase which leads to increased transcription of gene. acetylene group added to histone “loosens” DNA from histone, allows for gene to be expressed. Removal of acetylene group from histones lead to gene more tight to histone is it is not expressed

proto-oncogenes can be converted to

oncogenes through mutation or gene amplification

Oncogene

a mutated gene that promotes cancer development by causing cells to divide and multiply uncontrollably, often acting as a permanently activated accelerator for cell growth

tumor suppressor

normal genes that slow down cell division, repair DNA errors, or tell cells when to die (apoptosis)

proto-oncogene

normal genes that regulate cell growth, division, and survival

If you have a mutation in a somatic cell you cannot pass this down because

They do not occur in reproductive cells. It only affects the person. 

Why if there is a mutation in a sex cell why it might not be passed down to offspring

•  It might not be included in the fertilization. Might be a silent mutation. 

Why it is beneficial to have two homologous chromosomes and why this can protect from cancer:

• One of the healthy chromosomes can do the work when the damaged one cannot. 

 How HER2 actually controls cell division:

• HER2 transmits growth signals. HER2 is activated and then it sends a signal inside the cell. The cell responds by dividing. When it comes to cancer the issue is that some cells have too much HER2 so they cells uncontrollably divide. 

•  all control cell division and be able to identify what all of these pathways have in common:

• They regulate cell division

• When they are mutated they lead to loss of control over cell growth which leads to cancer

• Promotes cell division

• BCR-ABL: Fusion gene-PHILADELPHIA chromosome. Continuous growth and division signals. Oncogne

• BRCA 1: Tumor suppressor gene. Detects and helps repair double stranded DNA. commonly mutated genes can be familial. People may have one of these mutations or both. Increase one's risk for developing cancer. Breaks in chromosomes not repaired= changes in proteins encoded= affect cellular activities= promote cancer

• BRCA2: Accurate DNA repair. Tumor suppressor. commonly mutated genes can be familial. People may have one of these mutations or both. Increase one's risk for developing cancer. Breaks in chromosomes not repaired= changes in proteins encoded= affect cellular activities= promote cancer

How differential expression is controlled:

• transcription, regulate gene activity 

• Proteins and the functions that they can serve:

• large, complex biomolecules composed of long chains of amino acids (linked by peptide bonds) that act as essential molecular machines for nearly all cellular functions. They are crucial for building, repairing, and maintaining tissues, acting as enzymes, structural components, and transporters. 

• Jobs: Enzymes, structure, transport, protection, information

·      Know how our cells protect DNA from mutations

using a multi-layered defense system: DNA polymerase proofreading corrects errors during replication, while mechanisms like Mismatch Repair (MMR), Base Excision Repair (BER), and Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) fix damage afterward. If repairs fail, cells trigger cell cycle checkpoints or apoptosis (programmed cell death). 

Cool caps

Cap that is cold to prevent hair loss for mostly children but adults can use them too. When it’s cold: blood vessels constrict not as much blood flow to the brain. Cold constricts blood vessels so there is not as much blood flow to the brain so there is not as much chemo to the head. This prevents some of the hair loss that a person will have. Prevents hair loss by decreasing blood flow to the head which decreases chemo to hair cells. When it's hot: blood vessels dilate (get bigger) this increases blood flow. 

Paclitaxel

Paclitaxel

5-flurouracial-

• During transcription this drug is incorporated as a nucleotide instead of uracil. Cannot be translated.  

Cisplatin/carboplatin chemotherapy (unspecific treatment)

• -Impacts DNA replication

metastasis

•  When the cancer spreads from one site to a secondary site

Enzymes work in a(n)

assembly line

How enzymes work

• Accelerate chemical reactions. They have an active site. One enzyme’s product becomes another enzyme's substrate. 

Differential gene expression:

• Going from one cell population to another and comparing the gene expression. 

• BCR-ABL:

• Fusion gene-PHILADELPHIA chromosome. Continuous growth and division signals. Oncogene

• BRCA2

• Accurate DNA repair. Tumor suppressor. commonly mutated genes can be familial. People may have one of these mutations or both. Increase one's risk for developing cancer. Breaks in chromosomes not repaired= changes in proteins encoded= affect cellular activities= promote cancer

• BRCA 1

• Tumor suppressor gene. Detects and helps repair double stranded DNA. commonly mutated genes can be familial. People may have one of these mutations or both. Increase one's risk for developing cancer. Breaks in chromosomes not repaired= changes in proteins encoded= affect cellular activities= promote cancer

carcinogen

any substance, radiation, or agent—such as tobacco, asbestos, UV rays, or certain viruses—capable of causing cancer by damaging cellular DNA and promoting uncontrollable cell growth

gene amplification

creation of many copies of DNA segments. the process of increasing the copy number of a specific gene, resulting in elevated RNA and protein production (overexpression)

malignant neoplasia

a cancerous tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth, invasion of surrounding tissues, and the potential to spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body

benign neoplasia

a non-cancerous tumor that does not invade surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of the body. These growths are typically slow-growing, localized, and well-differentiated (resembling normal cells).

how DNA methylation impact gene expression

increased this prevents RNA polymerase from binding which decreases expression.Methyl group is added to where the RNA polymerase binds during transcription. Methyl group prevents transcription. Increased DNA methylation leads to decreased gene expression and vice versa.

If you had DNA methylation of a tumor suppressor would this increase or decrease gene expression

decrease

If you had DNA methylation of a tumor suppressor would this possible promote of prevent cancer

prevent

if we had histone acetylation that makes a protoncogene “more available”, would that cause increase or decrease gene expression

increased

Would the increase or decrease of the protoncogene of histone acetylation increase or decrease the possibility of cancer

increase

how histone acetylation contributes to cancer development or prevent cancer from starting

Different acetylation patterns between cancer and normal. relaxes chromatin to activate gene expression, playing a dual role in cancer. It drives cancer by activating oncogenes when dysregulated, while maintaining normal cell function when balanced. Conversely, preventing cancer often involves using HDAC inhibitors to restore acetylation, re-activating tumor-suppressor genes that curb proliferation and induce cancer cell death. 

how DNA methylation contributes to cancer development or prevent cancer from starting

Different DNA methylation patterns between normal and cancer. the addition of a methyl group to DNA—acts as an epigenetic switch that typically turns off gene expression. In cancer,

abnormal hypermethylation often silences tumor suppressor genes, enabling tumor growth, while hypomethylation can activate oncogenes. Conversely, normal methylation patterns maintain cellular stability, and targeted methylation can act as a biomarker for early detection. 

Purpose of the circulatory system

transport materials needed by cells: oxygen, glucose. Remove waste material from cells: carbon dioxide, urea. connects all parts of an organism, allows individual to thrive as well as for organisms to function as a unit. fluid filled networks of tubes(or vessels)

Purpose of the lymphatic system

drainage, immune function. Returns interstitial fluid to blood, absorbs fats, and helps immune defense.

Does it remove wastes? No, it mainly filters fluids and fights infections. It does not remove metabolic wastes like CO₂ or urea.

Valves of the heart

tricuspid, pulmonary, bicuspid/mitral, and aortic

Know in the pathway of blood through the heart when blood is oxygenated

starts in the lungs as it travels through the pulmonary veins, enters the left atrium, moves into the left ventricle, and is pumped out through the aorta to the body.

Know in the pathway of blood through the heart when blood is deoxygenated

enters via the superior/inferior vena cava into the right atrium, passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, and is pumped through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs.

Veins

elastic, muscular blood vessels within the circulatory system that transport deoxygenated blood from tissues and organs back to the heart (except for pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs)

Arteries

high-pressure, elastic blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood (except for pulmonary arteries) from the heart to tissues throughout the body

Arterioles

are the smaller arteries

Capillaries

small, thin, place of exchange (example: oxygen and carbon dioxide)

Venules

smaller veins

Veins function

takes blood to the heart

Arteries function

takes blood away from the heart

Arterioles function

regulate blood flow and pressure to capillary beds

Pulmonary arteries always carry oxygenated blood

false

Capillaries function

Carbon dioxide enters blood and oxygen leaves blood to go to cells. enable the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between blood and surrounding tissues.

Venules function

facilitate the exchange of gases and nutrients, serve as a blood reservoir, and are the primary site for leukocyte (white blood cell) migration during immune responses.

Veins, Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules. how are these all different from each other

Arteries(high-pressure, thick, elastic) carry blood away from the heart. They branch into smaller Arterioles (control flow via constriction). Capillaries (single-cell layer) allow nutrient/gas exchange. Venules collect blood, merging into Veins (low-pressure, thinner walls, have valves) to return blood to the heart

Cells of the circulatory system

Red blood cells: transport oxygen

white cells: T cells, B cells, NK cells, basophils, monocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils

Plasma: the liquid portion, contains dissolved nutrients, hormones, gases,

  Know the different components that make up the blood.

Plasma (55% of volume): A yellowish liquid, composed mostly of water (90%), salts, and proteins (such as albumin, fibrinogen, and globulins). It transports nutrients, hormones, proteins, electrolytes, and waste products.

Red Blood Cells (RBCs or Erythrocytes): These cells make up roughly 45%

of blood volume and are responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to tissues and returning carbon dioxide to be exhaled. They contain hemoglobin, which gives blood its red color.

• White Blood Cells (WBCs or Leukocytes): These are part of the immune system and are essential for defending the body against infections and foreign materials.

• Platelets (Thrombocytes): Tiny cell fragments that rush to the site of an injury, forming clots to stop or prevent bleeding

lymphatic system

a vital, widespread network of tissues, organs (spleen, thymus, lymph nodes), and vessels that acts as the body’s sanitation and immune defense system.

white cells: T cells, B cells, nk cells, basophils, monocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils

Leukemia

Cancer that develops from abnormal cell division of white blood cells

Lymphoma

cancers that develop in the lymphatic system

Two main categories of Lymphoma

Any type of lymphoma is a result of an uncontrollable multiplication of lymphocytes at the lymph nodes or other lymphoid tissues.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma: is a large white blood cell with 2 nuclei, less common often found in adolescents

Non-hodgkin’s lymphoma: (aka just lymphoma) more commonly found in people over 60

Non-hodgkin’s lymphoma

(aka just lymphoma) more commonly found in people over 60

Hodgkin’s lymphoma

is a large white blood cell with 2 nuclei, less common often found in adolescents

Four types of Leukemia

• Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL): large numbers of lymphocyte cells. Lymphoid stem cell. Prognosis is good and treated with chemo. The most common type in young children, though it affects adults too.

• Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML): Most common in individuals over 65. Success/prognosis varies. Myeloid stem cell.

  .

• Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL): Most common in North America, caused by an overproduction of B cells-many don’t realize they have it for years. Lymphoid stem cell. Primarily affects older adults and grows slowly.

• Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML): Often found in older adults, over product of granulocytes. 90% survival rate. Granulocytes comes from myeloid cell. Philadelphia

• Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML):

• Often found in older adults, over product of granulocytes. 90% survival rate. Granulocytes comes from myeloid cell. Philadelphia

• Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL):

• Most common in North America, caused by an overproduction of B cells-many don’t realize they have it for years. Lymphoid stem cell. Primarily affects older adults and grows slowly.

• Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML):

• Most common in individuals over 65. Success/prognosis varies. Myeloid stem cell.

• Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL):

• large numbers of lymphocyte cells. Lymphoid stem cell. Prognosis is good and treated with chemo. The most common type in young children, though it affects adults too.

What does Gleevec do and what form of Leukemia does it treat

Treats chronic myelogenous leukemia. is a targeted therapy to the Bcr-Abl protein and will inhibit the protein from promoting cell division. inhibit cell division.

big arteries and smaller arterioles is blood away from heart

big veins and small venules is bring blood back to heart