Unit 2 AP Psych

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score

fluid intelligence - gf

ability to reason speedily and abstractly - decreases with age

crystallized intelligence - gc

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills - increases with age

cattel hern Carroll theory

our intelligence is based on general intelligence and specific abilities - gf and gc

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

Grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long term goals

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

achievement test

tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

aptitude test

tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test

Intelligence quotient

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

psychometric

scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

flynn effect

rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting.

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

cohort

group of people sharing a common characteristics, such as from a time period

growth mindset

focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed

fixed mindset

view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable even with effort

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

cross sectional study

describes a population at one specific moment in time

longitudinal study

observes changes, trends, and developments in same group over extended period

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned

Relearning

a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

encode

process of getting info into memory system

store

retaining encoded info over time 

retreive

getting info out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously (at same time)

Sensory Memory

the immediate initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

working memory

newer understanding of short term memory (conscious and active processing of both incoming sensory info and retrieved info from long term memory)

central executive

memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad 

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory info

visuospatial sketchpad 

holds info about objects appearance and location in space 

neurogenesis

process of formation of new neurons

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare": declarative memory - processed in hippocampus

Effortful processing

Encoding that is done consciously and intentionally, and requires attention and effort.

Automatic processing

Subconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency) and well-learned information (word meanings).

Implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection: procedural memory - processed in cerebellum

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory which is entirely visual. Lasts only tenths of a second

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory which is entirely auditory. Lasts 3-4 seconds

Chunking

The process of organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Usually occurs automatically, but can also be effortful processing

Mneomics

A type of effortful processing memory aid in which vivid imagery or organizational devices are used to remember something, usually in a sequence (example: CANOE/OCEAN)

Spacing effect

We retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time, such as when learning classmates' names

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than just rereading info

shallow procesing

encoding on a basic level (based in structure/appearance of words)

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on meaning of words (yields best retention)

semantic

explicit memory of facts/general knowledge 

episodic

explicit memories of personal experiences

Hippocampus (in memory)

processes explicit memories for facts and episodes and feeds into other brain regions for storage

memory consolidation

neural storage of a long term memory

Flashbulb memory

A clear, brief memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Priming

The process of associating two memories together, such as associating an old memory with new information to make it easier to recall - can be done unconsciously

encoding specificity principles

idea that cue and contexts specific to a memory will be most effective in helping us recall it 

Mood-congruent memories

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Serial position effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the items in the middle

interleaving

retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

Anterograde amnesia

Amnesia which is a failure to encode (can’t form new memories) 

Retrograde amnesia

Amnesia which is a failure to retrieve (can’t remember info from past)

Proactive interference

The disruptive effect of PRIOR learning on the recall of NEW information

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of NEW learning on the recall of PRIOR information

repress

basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

re-consolidation

process in which previously sorted memories when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again.

Misinformation effect

After exposure to misinformation, many people misremember

source amnesia

faulty memory for how,when,where info is learned/imagined (misatributing info to wrong sources) 

Déjà vu

An eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Figure and ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception 

ability to see objects in 3-D even though the images strike the retina as 2-D (allows us to judge distance)

visual cliff

laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular depth cues

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

monocular depth cues

aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye

stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying images

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on/off in quick successions

autokinetic effect 

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room 

perceptual consistency

perceiving objects as unchanging (consistent color, brightness,shape,sizes) even as illumination & retinal images change.

color consistency 

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even as changing illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object.

perceptual adaptation

the brain's ability to adjust its perception in response to changes in sensory input, allowing it to adapt to new or altered sensory fields.

Cognition 

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.