Chapter 27 & 28

Final Exam

List two observations Darwin made on his voyage that influenced the development of his theory.

Fossils, Same species have different adaptions in different places

Compare and contrast Darwin’s and Lamarck's explanations as to how evolution might happen. 

Lamarck: inheritance of acquired characteristics

Darwin: evolution by natural selection

Describe how the theory of natural selection suggests how evolution might work. 

1. Variation within a population

2. Inheritance of traits from parents to offspring

3. Production of offspring with more favorable trait

4. Organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce 

Define biological evolution.

The changes that occur in living organisms over geological time

Describe, with examples, the four lines of evidence for evolution.

1. All organisms use DNA and RNA

2. Genetic Code is universal

3. DNA, ATP, and Enzymes

4. Many genes shared by almost all organisms

List five conditions necessary for the allele frequencies in a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. 

1. no mutations

2. No genetic drift

3. No gene flow

4. Random mating

5. no selection

Calculate the genotypic frequencies for a population.

gene expressed (x2) / total population (x2)= genotype frequencies

List and describe five forms of microevolution. 

1. Mutations

2. Genetic Drift: events change allele frequencies from 1 generation to the next

3. Gene Flow: movement of alleles between populations

4. Nonrandom mating: occurs when individuals are selective about choosing a mate (random mating is never observed in natural populations)

5. Natural Selections: organisms become adapted to conditions as the environment changes 

Define Heterozygote advantage and give and example

Heterozygous Genotype (Aa) has a better relative fitness than homozygous (AA or aa) since it encourages the persistence with multiple alleles in the genotype pool

Describe the various forms of species isolating mechanisms. 

1. Habitat: 2 species live in the same general area but not same kind of place (land snake vs. water snake)

2. Temporal Isolation: 2 species breed at different times (seasons, times of day)

3. Behavioral isolation: little or no mate recognition between females and males of different species (different courtship rituals)

4. Mechanical isolation: female and male sex organs aren’t compatible (flowers have reproductive parts in different places)

5. Gametic isolation: female and male gametes are not compatible

Describe the processes, including examples, by which speciation can occur

Allopatric Speciation: geographic barriers separate a population into 2 groups (hammerheads and sand sharks)

Sympatric Speciation: speciation occurs in same region, new species in ancient species (greatwhites and megalodons)

Describe how phylogenetics, the theory of evolution, and classification of organisms are interrelated. 

Phylogenetics: studies evolutionary relatedness of groups of organisms 

Phylogeny: a hypothesis of evolutionary relatedness among taxa represented by a “family tree”

Classification: order in which organisms are related

Interpret a phylogenetic tree to determine how closely organisms are related.

a diagram that shows the evolutionary relationship between different organisms 

Define Microbiology

Study or microbes, including bacteria, archaea, protists, fungi, viruses, and prions

Describe contributions of Leeuwenhoek and Pasteur to the science of microbiology

Main contribution was inventing high powered single-lens microscopes, allowed him to be the first to observe and describe microorganisms

Explain what is meant by the term microbiota.

The microorganisms of a particular site, habitat, or geological period,

The microscopic organisms of a particular environment

Typical complement of bacterial species found on the human body; includes species found both internally and externally

chemical

Nutrient Cycling: break down organic and inorganic materials that can be reused by animals and plants

Photosynthesis: capture energy from the sun or inorganic material → provides nutrients for more complex organisms. these organisms occupy an important position in the food chain 

Bioremediation: virtually consume any substance found on Earth. Can clean oil spills or other toxic compounds  

Distinguish between chemical and biological evolution

Chemical Evolution: (Stages 1-2) process of increasing complexity of inorganic molecules to form organic ones 

Biological Evolution: (Stages 3-4) change in genetic composition of living organisms over generations 

List and describe the four stages that are thought to have led to the formation of cells

1. Organic Monomers: evolution of monomers, Primordial soups

2. Organic Polymers: evolution of polymers

3. Photobionts: evolution of photobionts. everything has a cell membrane 

4. Living Cells: evolution of living things

Describe Organism Monomers

Describe Organic Polymers

Describe Photobionts

Describe Living Cells

Explain the methods and significance of the Miller-Urey experiment

Early earth had reducing atmosphere.
• After a week, water turned brown.
• Amino acids and other organic acids produced.
• Repeatedly tested over the decades.
• Even greater number of organic molecules produced.

List some of the major characteristics used to distinguish Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryotes.

Archaea: prokaryotic cells that often live in extreme habitats and have unique genetic, biochemical and physiological characteristics, single celled prokaryotes

Bacteria: single celled prokaryotes, have unique genetic, biochemical, and physiological characteristics

Eukaryotes: organisms with eukaryotic cells; includes protists, fungi, plants and animals

Archaea

• prokaryotic cells of various chapes

• adapts to extreme environments

• absorb/ chemosynthesis food

• unique chemical characteristics

Bacteria

• prokaryotic cells of various chapes

• adapts to all environments

• absorb, photosynthesize, or chemosynthesis food

• unique chemical charcteristics 

Eukarya

Kingdom Prostista: algae, protozoans, slime molds, water molds

• complex single cell, absorb photosynthesize or ingest food

Kingdom Plantae: certain algae, mosses, ferns, conifers, flowing plants

• multicellular, usually w/ specialized tissues containing complex cells. photosynthesize food

Kingdom Fungi: molds, mushrooms, yeasts, and ringworms

• mostly multicellular filaments w/ specialized complex cells. absorbs food 

Kingdom Animalia: sponges, worms, insects, fishes, frogs, turtles, birds, and mammals

• multicellular w/ specialized issues containing complex cells. Ingest food 

Distinguish between halophiles, thermoacidophiles, and methanogens

Halophiles: type of archaea that lives in extremely salty habitats

Thermoacidophiles: archaea, usually found in extremely hot, acidic, and aquatic environments

Methanogens: archaea, methane-makers, use carbon dioxide & hydrogen as energy sources producing methane as bi-product. lives in oxygen free habitats 

Identify the major structural features of bacteria.

• capsule, ribosomes, cell wall, plasma membrane, storage granule, chromosome, nucleoid, fimbriae, flagellum

Describe bacterial reproduction

Reproduce asexually by binary fission

• cell replicates its genome and divides into 2 new daughter cells

Bacteria can form a resistant endospore, endospore for survival in harsh condition 

Describe the three ways bacteria can increase their genetic variation. 

1. Conjugation: donor cell passes DNA to a recipient cell by way
   of a sex pilus

2. Transformation: bacterium takes up DNA from environment
   released by dead bacteria

3. Transduction: viruses carry bacterial DNA from cell to cell

Describe the metabolism and ecological function of Cyanobacteria

• Photoautotrophs: have Chlorophyll and do photosynthesis that releases oxygen 

Describe diseases caused by Streptococcus pyrogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. 

Describe the different types of food poisoning and list two species that cause it. 

Describe the function of most antibiotics.

Describe the pro's and con's of the popular usage of probiotics.

Distinguish between viruses and prions. 

List and describe the stages of viral reproduction for the rubella virus

Describe antigenic drift and shift

List several prions and the species they infect