Sociology Final Terms

Units 1-8, 11

sociology

the scientific study of social structure (human social behavior)

* concentrates on patterns of social relationships, primarily in modern societies
* sociologists are concerned with explaining behavior in terms of societal
causes

social dynamics

study of social change

social statistics

study of social stability and order

symbolic interactionism

we learn the meaning of a symbol (anything that stands for
something else and has an agreed-upon meaning attached to it) from the way we see
others reacting to it

* once we learn the meaning of symbols, we base our behavior on them

conflict perspective

supporters see social living as a contest

* those with power (the ability to control the behavior of others) get the largest share of
whatever is considered valuable in society
* as the balance of power among groups shifts, change occurs (e.g., women's movement)

functionalism

the high degree of cooperation in a society; economies, families, governments and religions serve to promote a society's survival and welfare

symbol

(anything that stands for something else and has an agreed-upon meaning attached to it)

verstehen

a view that looks at behavior of groups, not
individuals (psychology)

sociological perspective

a view that looks at behavior of groups, not
individuals (psychology)

positivism

belief that knowledge should be derived from scientific
observation

Auguste Comte

the "father" of sociology

* his main concern: improvement of society - proposed that if societies were
to advance, social behavior had to be studied scientifically

Emile Durkheim

first introduced the use of statistical techniques in his research on suicide

* said that suicide involves more than individuals acting alone, suicide rates vary
according to group characteristics
* showed that human social behavior must be explained by social rather than
psychological factors

Jane Addams

reformer/social worker who established the Hull
House in Chicago in 1889 - provided refuge for immigrants, the sick, the poor, the aged

* focused on the problems caused by the imbalance of power among the social classes
* active in the women's suffrage movement
* won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 (only sociologist to win one)

Harriet Martineau

best know for her English translation of Comte's famous book, Positive Philosophy

* wrote Society in America - became a pioneering feminist theorist - spoke
out against oppression of women and slaves

Causation

belief that events occur in predictable ways and that one events leads to
another

Correlation

measure of the relationship between two variables

Hypothesis

measure of the relationship between two variables

Survey

method in which people respond to questions - most widely used research
method for sociologists - ideal for studying large numbers of people

Independent Variable

characteristic that causes something to occur

Dependent Variable

reflects a change

Population

a group of people with certain specified characteristics (e.g., all high school
school seniors in the U.S.)

Representative Sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of a
population as a whole

Secondary Analysis

using pre-collected info. for data collection and research purposes
(govt. reports, company records, voting lists, prison records, reports of research done by other social scientists)

Sociology's Code of Ethics

researcher shows objectivity, uses superior research
standards, reports findings and methods truthfully, protects
the rights and privacy of research subjects

Culture

knowledge, values, customs and physical objects that are shared by members
of a society

Society

a specific territory inhabited by people who share a common culture

Beliefs

ideas about the nature of reality - can be true or false

Norms

- rules define appropriate/inappropriate behavior
- help to explain why people in a society or group behave similarly in similar
circumstances

Values

broad ideas about what is good or desirable shared by people in a society

Formal Sanctions

imposed by persons given special authority (judges, police officers,
teachers) - can be positive or negative

informal sanctions

rewards or punishments that can be applied by most members of a
group (thanking someone for his/her help = positive - telling someone who's speaking
during a movie to be quiet = negative)

Folkways

norms that lack moral significance (sleeping in a bed vs. on the floor, men
removing their hats in church)

Mores

norms that have moral dimensions and that should be followed by members of
the society (people shouldn't use loud profanity during a religious service)

Taboo

a norm so strong that its violation calls for punishment (Hindus - cows are
sacred animals -> killing them is forbidden - all societies - incest)

counterculture

subculture consciously opposed to certain central beliefs or attitudes of
the dominant culture

Laws

- norm that's formally defined and enforced by officials
- over time, a society's folkways can become mores, mores can become laws
(smoking)

Socialization

- the process of learning to participate in a group
- begins at birth, continues throughout life
- successful socialization enables people to fit into all kinds of social
groups
- most important learning occurs early in life - without prolonged and
intensive social contact, children don't learn basics like walking, talking
and loving - human infant without socialization can't develop the set of
attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviors associated with being an
individual

Resocialization

the process of adopting new norms, values, attitudes and behaviors

Desocialization

the process of giving up old norms, values, attitudes and behaviors
(replacing personal possessions with standard-issue items promotes sameness among
residents)

hidden curriculum

the informal and unofficial aspects of culture that children are
taught in school (discipline, order, cooperation, conformity)
- schools run by the clock, as in the work world

looking-glass self

- an image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you
- a 3-stage process: 1. we imagine how we appear to others
2. we imagine the reaction of others to our (imagined) appearance
3. we evaluate ourselves according to how we imagine others have
judged us

Self-concept

an image of yourself as having an identity separate from other people

anticipatory socialization

the voluntary process of preparing to accept new norms,
values, attitudes and behaviors (high school seniors preparing for college, college
seniors preparing for careers)

Peer Group

set of individuals of roughly the same age and interests - for children, it's
the only agency of socialization not controlled primarily by adults

Total Institution

places in which people are separated from the rest of society and
controlled by officials in charge (mental hospitals, cults, prisons)

Reference Group

group whose norms and values are used to guide behavior, group with
whom you identify (preteens copying behavior and dress)

Social Structure

the underlying patterns of relationships in a group

Role

an expected behavior associated with a particular status

Role Strain

roles of single status are inconsistent or conflicting (high school student may
wish to perform well academically, join a campus club, play a sport, socialize on
weekends)

Role Conflict

performance of a role in one status interferes with the performance of a
role in another status (teenagers may have difficulty balancing study and work demands)

Status

a position a person occupies within a social structure (mother, son, student,
doctor, musician, athlete)

Achieved Status

a position that's earned or chosen (occupations, decision to be a spouse
or a parent)

Ascribed Status

a position that's neither earned nor chosen but assigned (gender, age)

Master Status

- a position that strongly influences most other aspects of a person's life
- can be achieved or ascribed ( occupation, age, gender, race, ethnicity)

Rights

a behavior that individuals can expect from others (patient has the right to expect
the doctor to reach an appropriate diagnosis)

Obligation

a behavior that individuals are expected to perform toward others (doctor
must diagnose patient's illness)

Group

1. are in regular contact with one another
2. share some ways of thinking, feeling and behaving
3. take one another's behavior into account
4. have one or more interests or goals in common

Primary Group

people who are emotionally close, know each other well, seek one
another's company

Secondary Group

people who share only part of their lives while focusing on a goal or
task

In-group

exclusive groups demanding intense loyalty

Out-Group

groups targeted by an in-group for opposition, antagonism or competition

Social Exchange

voluntary action performed in the expectation of getting a reward in
return ("I'll scratch your back if you scratch mine.")

Conformity

behavior that matches group expectations

Formal Organization

groups deliberately created to achieve one or more long-term
goals (high schools, govt. agencies)

Bureaucracy

- formal organization based on rationality and efficiency
- major characteristics of bureaucracies:
1. a division of labor based on the principle of specialization
2. a hierarchy of authority
3. a system of rules and procedures
4. written records of work and activities
5. promotion on the basis of merit and qualifications

Iron Law of Oligarchy

theory that power increasingly becomes concentrated in the
hands of a few members of any organization

Deviance

behavior that departs from societal or group norms

Primary Deviance

occasional breaking of norms that is not a part of a person's lifestyle
or self-concept

Secondary Deviance

a person's life and identity are organized around breaking society's
norms (career criminal)

Stigma

an undesirable characteristic or label used by others to deny the deviant full
social acceptance

white collar crime

job-related crimes committed by high-status people (examples:
price fixing, insider trading, tax evasion, embezzlement)

recidivism

repetition of or return to criminal behavior

Rehabilitation

an attempt to resocialize criminals

Differential Association Theory

people learn deviance in proportion to number of
deviant acts they're exposed to

Strain Theory

deviance more likely when a gap exists between cultural goals (money
and prestige) and the ability to achieve them by legitimate means

Deterrence

discouraging criminal acts by threatening punishment

Absolute poverty

the absence of enough $ to secure life's necessities

Relative Poverty

a measure of poverty based on the economic disparity between those at
the bottom of society and the rest of society

social class

segment of society whose members hold similar amounts of resources and
share values, norms and an identifiable lifestyle

vertical mobility

a change upward or downward in occupational status or social class

horizontal mobility

a change in occupation within the same social class

intergenerational mobility

a change in status or class from one generation to the next

wealth

total economic resources held by a person or group

income

amount of money received by an individual or group over a specific time period

power

ability to control the behavior of others, even against their will

social mobility

the movement of individuals or groups between social classes

prestige

recognition, respect and admiration attached to social positions - must be
voluntarily given, not claimed

nuclear family

family structure composed of one or both parents and children

blended family

formed when at least one of the partners in a marriage has been married
before and has a child or children from a previous marriage

matrilineal

descent and inheritance is passed through the female line

patrilineal

descent and inheritance is passed through the male line

bilateral

descent/inheritance passed equally through both parents

matrilogical

refers to the pattern in which married couples live with or near the wives'
parents

patrilogical

refers to the pattern in which married couples live with or near the husbands'
parents

neological

pattern in which newly married couples set up their own households

matriarchy

the pattern in which the oldest woman living in the household has authority
over the rest of the family members

patriarchy

the pattern in which the oldest man living in the household has authority
over the rest of the family members

monogamy

marriage = one man + one woman

exogamy

practice of marrying outside one's group

endogamy

marriage within one's group as required by social norms