Cognition - Chapter 2

What are the basic building blocks of the brain and nervous system?

neurons

Which part of a neuron is responsible for receiving messages from other neurons?

dendrites

The ____ contains the nucleus and is responsible for keeping the neuron alive

cell body (soma)

What is the primary function of a neuron’s axon?

to send messages to other neurons

The axon terminal is located at the ___ of axon

end

What is the insulating layer that may cover an axon to aid message transmission?

myelin sheath

The myelin sheath is formed by separate ____ that wrap around the axon

glial cells

Which specific type of glial cell creates the myelin sheath?

oligodendrocytes

What are the two primary forms of neuronal communication?

electrical and chemical

The state of a neuron when it is not currently transmitting information is the ___.

resting potential

What is the approximate electrical charge of a neuron at its resting potential?

-70 mV

The threshold voltage required to trigger an action potential is ___.

-55 mV

What term describes the change in electrical charge of a neuron during information transmission?

action potential

During an action potential, the voltage of the neuron peaks at approximately ____.

+40 mV

The phase of the action potential where the voltage rapidly increases is called ___.

depolarization

The phase of the action potential where the voltage returns toward the resting state is called ____.

repolarization

What is the “refractory period” in an action potential graph?

the brief period where voltage dips below the resting state before stabilizing

How long does the depolarization and repolarization cycle typically last in an action potential?

approximately 2 to 3 ms

What chemicals are released by a neuron to transmit information across a synapse?

neurotransmitters

the junction where information is transmitted between two neurons is the ____.

synapse

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with memory functions and relates to Alzherimer’s disease when lacking?

acetylcholine

What are the two primary roles of Norepinephrine in cogniton?

memory retrieval and attention

Which neurotransmitter is linked to motivation, alertness, and impulse control?

dopamine

Serotonin is involved in regulating attention, mood, and ____.

eating behavior

Which neurotransmitter is most fundamentally involved in learning and memory?

glutamate

Unlike neurons, ____ cells do not transmit information but support the transmission process

glial

Which glial cells are involved in immune functions and providing energy to neurons?

astrocytes

What is a known non-immune function of astrocytes besides providing energy?

information processing

The forebrain structure responsible for controlling and coordinating voluntary movements is the ___.

basal ganglia

The ___ system is a group of brain structures dealing with emotion, memory, and motivation

limbic

Which specific brain area is referred to as the “fear and anger zone”?

amgydala

The structure necessary for memory generation and navigation is the ___.

hippocampus

What is the primary role of the Thalamus?

sensory relay

Which sense information does NOT pass through the Thalamus?

smell

The Hypothalamus is responsible for regulating the ___ of survival

four F’s

What are the two types of “matter” that constitute the Cerebral Cortex?

white and gray matter

The ___ lobe is associated with thinking and imagination

frontal

Which lobe is responsible for executive function, cognitive function, and personality?

prefrontal

The lobe primarily responsible for kinesthetic processing is the ____ lobe

parietal

The lobe primarily responsible for visual processing is the ___ lobe

occipital

Which lobe handles sound and speech processing?

temporal

What is the name of the cytotechnonic map used to divide the brain into numbered areas?

Brodmann’s Areas

According to Bordmann’s map, Area 4 corresponds to the ____.

primary motor cortex

Brodmann’s Areas 1, 2, and 3 correspond to the ___.

primary somatosensory cortex

Which Brodmann Area is designated as the primary visual cortex?

area 17

Brodmann Area 22 is the ___.

primary auditory cortex

Areas 44 and 45 on the Brodmann map are collectively known as ____.

broca’s area

Areas 39 and 40 on the Brodmann map are collectively known as _____.

Wernicke’s area

How is a stimulus represented in “Specificity coding”?

by the specialized firing of a single neuron for that specific stimulus

How is a stimulus represented in “Population coding”?

by the firing pattern of a large number of neurons

How is a stimulus represented in 'Sparse coding'?

by the firing patterns of only a few neurons

Tolman’s 1938 research with mice in mazes suggested the existence of ____.

cognitive maps

What was the main reason cognitive psychologists moved “Beyond Behaviorism”?

some behaviors required mental constructs to be explained adequately

The “Cognitive Revolution” compared the function of the human mind to a ____.

computer

In technology-based analogies for cognition, mental representations are likened to ____.

data structures

In technology-based analogies for cognition, cognitive processes are likened to _____.

programs or rules

What is the ENIAC and when was it completed?

the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, completed in 1945

Which 1968 model described the information processing approach to memory?

the Modal Model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

In the Modal Model, what are the three sensory registers?

visual, auditory, and haptic

According to the Modal Model, rehearsal and coding are examples of _____.

control processes

Where is “temporary working memory” held in the Modal Model?

short-term store

Where is information kept in 'permanent memory store' in the Modal Model?

long-term store

Why is brain damage difficult to study in a “perfect” scientific way?

nature rarely produces perfectly localized damage

When studying brain injury, why must researchers wait for behavior to stabilize?

patients develop compensatory mechanisms for deficits over time

The neuron that releases neurotransmitters is the _____ neuron.

presynaptic

The neuron that receives neurotransmitters is the _____ neuron.

postsynaptic

Neurotransmitters are stored in _____ within the axon terminal before release.

vesicles

What type of channels in the axon terminal trigger neurotransmitter release?

Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels

On the postsynaptic neuron, neurotransmitters bind to specific _____.

neurotransmitter receptors

What happens to the electrical frequency of action potentials as the strength of a stimulus increases?

the rate/frequency of firing increases

In a series of action potentials, does the height (voltage) of the spikes change with stimulus intensity?

no, the height remains constant; only the frequency changes.

Concept: Cognitive Map

Definition: a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

ex) a mouse remembering the path to food in a complex maze

Which 1957 book by B.F. Skinner argued that language is learned through reinforcement?

“Verbal Behavior”

Who wrote the 1959 critique of 'Verbal Behavior' that helped spark the cognitive revolution?

Noam Chomsky

The Information Processing Approach suggests environment info is processed through a _____.

series of processing stages

In the simple information processing diagram, what stage follows the 'Filter'?

detector

In the arithmetic unit processing diagram, what is the final step before Output?

arithmetic unit

Behaviorism emphasized _____ scientific methods.

objective (observable)

According to Behaviorism, mental processes are not scientific because they are _____.

not observable

Who is considered the founder of Behaviorism?

John Watson