Earth and ocean science 111-First part

Isolated system

A physical system that does not exchange matter or energy with its surroundings, remaining completely self-contained.

fixed and finite energy and matter

Closed system

A physical system that can exchange energy but not matter with its surroundings, allowing for energy transfer while maintaining a fixed amount of matter.

eg earth

Open system

A physical system that can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings, allowing for continuous interaction and transfer.

System

Any portion of the universe that can be separated from the rest for measuring and observing change

Remote sensing

The continuous or repetitive collection of information about a target from a distance

Geographical information system (GIS)

Computer-based system that can store large amount of spatially referenced data points

Spatially

Store, use, etc in a way that relates to space and the position, area, and size of things within it.

Geostationary Satellites

Fixed in orbit at high altitudes

Sun-synchronous satellites

Circle from pole to pole at lower altitudes and thus have higher resolution.

Swaths

Overlapping strips of data

Flux

The constant exchange of energy and matter between Earth’s reservoirs

Steady state

Matter in and out of a reservoir is equal

Sink

Matter into the reservoir is greater than matter leaving
Receives energy or matter

Source

Matter leaving the reservoir is greater than matter going in
Donates energy or matter

Residence time

Average length of time water spends in a reservoir

Sequester

isolate or hide away.

Sequestration

When a substance has a very long residence time in a reservoir

The four great reservoirs

Biosphere
Atmosphere
Geosphere
Hydrosphere

What is the amount of matter in a closed system?

Fixed and finite

What happens of changes are made in one part of a closed system

The result of those changes eventually will effect other parts of the system

What is earths energy system powered by?

External: Sun

Internal: Radioactive decay and Gravitational energy

Gravitational energy

Heat still being lost from planetary formation

Life zone

Where earths 4 reservoirs interact most intensively. It is 10km above and below the surface

Cryosphere

Perennially frozen parts of the hydrosphere

Negative feedback

The systems response is in the opposite direction to the stimulus/initial input

Positive feedback

Increase in output leads to a further increase in output

Biogeochemical cycle

Movement of a chemical element or compound that cycles through earths reservoirs and has a role in earths stability

Cycles

The physical materials of the Earth system and the energy contained within it are continually recycled in numerous overlapping cycles.

How do we learn about the earth?

By measuring the mass or volume of materials and energy

Mineral requirements

Naturally forming/occurring
Inorganic
Solid Crystalline structure
Specific chemical compound

Rocks

Collections of minerals and other natural materials and organic matter

Solids with a crystal structure are?

Crystalline

Solids without a crystal structure are?

Amorphous

Most abundant mineral groups

Most abundant: Silicates
Second abundant: simple oxides

Most abundant minerals

Feldspars ~60%
Quartz ~15%

What does a crystal require?

The angle between any two faces to be the same on each crystal

Luster

Quality and intensity of light reflected

Hardness

Relative resistance of a mineral to being scratched

Density

Average mass per unit volume

Rock requirements

Naturally forming
Non-living
Firm
Combination of solid matter containing part of a planetary object

Igneous rock

Formed by the cooling and consolidation of MAGMA

Sedimentary rocks

Formed by either chemical precipitation of material dissolved in water or by the deposition of particles suspended and transported by water

Metamorphic rock

Either an igneous or sedimentary rock that has changed due to high TEMPERATURE and high PRESSURE

Texture

Overall appearance of a rock

Mineral assemblage

Amounts and kinds of minerals present

Plutonic igneous rock

Crystalize from magma underground

Volcanic igneous rock

Crystalizes from magma above ground

Regolith

A layer of broken disintegrated rock matter produced by rock weathering

What happened when the big bang cooled enough?

Protons, neutrons, and electrons combined into hydrogen atoms

Nucleosynthesis

the process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nuclei and nucleons

Big bang nucleosynthesis

Nuclear fusion formed H and He atoms

Stellar nucleosynthesis

forming elements in the stars
Created heavier element

Supernovae

Creates elements heaver then Fe

How are planets formed?

Gravity pulls together materials to make new stars and a surrounding accretionary disk.

the accretionary disk starts to coalesce to make planetesimals which collide to make protoplanets and eventually planets

Coalesce

combine elements together to form one mass or whole

planetesimals

a body which could come together with many others under gravitation to form a planet.

Differentiation

the process by which a planet's chemical elements separate into distinct layers. This happens when a planet melts and its materials separate by density

Chondrite

a type of meteorite that's made of iron, magnesium, silicon, and oxygen. Chondrites are the oldest known rocks and provide important clues about the formation of the solar system.

Planet types

Terrestrial: small, dense, rocky

Jovian: large, low density, gas giant

When did earths layering form?

Planetary differentiation

Primary waves

Travel the fastest

Can travel through solids and liquids

Refracted when passing through the core

Travel faster through colder materials

When can earths layers be transported

During volcanic eruptions

Secondary waves

Travel slower
Cannot travel through liquid
Cannot travel through the earths core

Compositional layers

Continental Crust
Oceanic Crust
Mantle
Core

Strength layers

Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Mesosphere

Lithosphere

Strong, cool, and rigid
Only layer that reliably breaks when put under pressure
Where earthquakes generate

Asthenosphere

Can flow/bend when under pressure
Solid, weak, easily deformed
Cannot generate earthquakes reliably

Mesosphere

High temperature and pressure
Strong and solid
Participated in convention

What are plate tectonics a response to?

Earth trying to cool down

Convection cells

patterns of fluid motion that occur when warm, less dense material rises and cold, denser material sinks

conduction

The transfer of energy, such as heat or an electric charge, through a substance

Divergent margins

the boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving apart

Convergent margins

the boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving apart

Transform margin

a fault where two tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally.

Why is the mantle the densest layer

Closest to the core
Solid rock

Lithospheric plates

Have nothing to do with the shape of continents

Can be covered in continental or oceanic crust

3 major and many more minor plates

Divergent plate margins

Seismicity: Shallow earthquakes
Melting: Decompression melting
Volcanism: Creation of oceanic crust and mid ocean ridge
Hydrothermal energy

Mid ocean ridges and continental rifts

Continental rifts

Plates are continental and only produces oceanic crust
Pressure created from magma became great enough for the crust to separate
The rift valley formed mimics what is happening below the surface

Mid-Ocean Ridges

The plates pull apart causing the asthenosphere to rise up.
Decompression melting occurs lowering the melting point and creating the partial melting of the mantle creating magma

Magma cools and new oceanic crust is formed

Convergent plate margins

Seismicity: Ranges from shallow to deep
Melting: Flux melting
Volcanism: Creation of continental crust at volcanic arc
Accretionary wedge
Subduction and continental collision zone

Subduction zones

Oceanic →Oceanic or Continental →Oceanic

Trench and volcanic arcs are formed

Continental collision zone

Continental →Continental lithosphere
Forms mountains and thick crustal root

1. Deep Sea clay

2. Calcareous ooze

3. Siliceous ooze

4. Glacio-marine sediment

5. Terrigenous sediments

6. Ocean margins

Two kinds of metamorphic rock and where they are found.

Slate, Schist, Areas of uplift eg Pleasent valley

Three kinds of igneous rock and where they are found.

Obsidian, pumice (volcanic), Gabbro (Plutonic), Near volcanic arcs eg Boatmans Harbour

Two Sedimentary rock types and where they are found.

Conglomerate, Sandstone, Along the coastline eg Koekohe beach

How is hydrogen formed.

A few minutes after the big bang during the period called the big bang nucleosynthesis

How is oxygen formed

created within stars through nuclear fusion

Differeces between sea water and fresh water

Seawater, Contains lots of ions, Denser, 3.5% salt, -2 freezing point. Freshwater: Contains few ions, less dense, <0.5% salt, 0 freezing point

Speed of sound in water

1500 m/s