4- crime control, punishment prevention, surveillance and vicitmology (copy)

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Sociology

86 Terms

1

Durkeheim

punishment serves to heal the wounds done to the collective sentiments as there is a change from retributive to restitutive justice

  • pre industrial society had retributive justice which was very visible and acted as a deterrent with things like public hangings and branding. entire towns and and villages would watch public executions due to its communal nature

  • post industrial society is focused on restitutive justice in which each individual has been socialised differently into different norms and values and therefore society functions better if individuals are compensated for their crime s

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History of punishment

18th century

  • public hanging as main punishment and over 200 crimes resulted in hanging including minor crimes

19th century

  • public executions were still common howver prisons start to be built with 90% of crimes resulted in prison by 1899

20th century

  • prisons become the dominant form of punishment and to prevent overcrowding there is a range of other punishments for minor crimes such as fines and tagging and house arrests. death penalty is abolished in 1965

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prisons today

  • The Prison population rose from 60,000 in 1997 to 77,000 in 2006 and 83,000 in 2007. But has decreased slightly and in 2020 was 79,000. in 2023 its 95,000

  • The UK has more life sentenced prisoners than whole of the rest of western Europe combined (Prison Reform Trust 2018)

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Roger Mathhews

  • prisoners act as ‘universities of crimes’

  • prisoners learn how to diversity their crime portfolio 

  • prisons are essentially warehouses where issues of offending are rarely addressed, reform or rehabilitated 

  • many prisoners are drug addicts or mentally ill making prisoners unsuitable places for them

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A03 of functionalist view of punishment

E. Solomon- over 50% of the prison population are in prison for these crimes

Morgan-     75% of ex-inmates reoffend within 9 years and 40% reoffend within the first 12 months.  

  • high rates of recidivism 

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Melossi and Pavarini

  1. Capitalism puts a price on workers time so to ‘do time’ is to ‘pay for’ their crime.

  2. Both prisons and factories have strict disciplinary 

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A02/A03 of Melossi and pavarni

David Downes-  Prisons soak up about 30-40% of the unemployment so for capitalism it is more successful. hides the failings of capitalism 

Zahid Mubarak- In 2000 Zahid Mubarak was a British Pakistani received a 90 day imprisonment sentence after stealing from cars. On his 89th night, he was battered and killed with a table leg by his cell mate Robert Stuarts who was a racist psychopath. They were placed in the same cell due to under staffing and over crowdedness.

Carabine et al- argue that contemporary prisons create problems in food, sanitations, education and work opportunities. 

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A03 problems with prisosns

  • New Labour: ‘tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’ 

  • harsher punishments including longer prison sentences which leads to overcrowding of prisons 

  • cons coalition 2010- cut the size of government , austerity 

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A03 of who ends up in prisons

Sayer- m/c and r/c can exploit the loopholes such as settlements and so w/c are more likely to be prosecuted 

Gordon-  crime is a rational response to exploitation, thus the working class are targeted disproportionately more and caught more.

Ciroucel- typifications and selective law enforcement. this causes more marginalised groups to be disproportionately caught more

Heidensoohn- women commit less crime and are more controlled and therefore men are more likely to end up in prison 

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Heidensoohn

  • women commit less crime and are more controlled and therefore men are more likely to end up in prison 

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Prison stats on ethnic minorities

Black Americans make up only 13% of the population but make up 37% of the prison population

black makes are 6x more likely to be in prison than white males

Hispanic and Native Americans are tiwce more likely to be in prison than white males

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Garland

 It ceases to be the incarcerated of individual offenders and become the systematic imprisonment of whole groups of the population. In the case of the USA, the group concerned is, of course, the young black males”. - Links to cicourel 

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Transcarceration

  • when someone enters an institution such as young offenders prisons there is a higher likelihood that they will end up in prison in later life 

  • this also includes things like social services and mental institution

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Instituionalisation

  •  doesn't know how to live outside prison 

  • they have a criminal record which prevents them from being able to reintegrate into society and so they choose to commit crime as they cant live in society 

  • high status in prison doesn't equate to high status in the real world 

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raithwaite

blaming the act and not the individual, label attached to the act and less blame on the individual

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Hirschi

control theory

Most people don’t commit crimes due to four controls in their lives: 

  1. Attachment: attachment to family and peers, strength of social bonds 

  2. Commitment: commitment to work or religion 

  3. Involvement: involvement in different activities such as sports and societies 

  4. Belief: beliefs in religion or morals and status quo 

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policies relating to Hirschi’s control theory

  • neighbourhood watch- increases involvement in the community 

  • more parent responsibility - cameron after london riots ‘ parents, do you know where your children are’ 

  • supervision of offenders- reinforces moral codes in society 

  • ASBOs - encourages commitment 

  • Zero tolerance policing - reinforces moral codes in society 

  • more policing and arrests - reinforces moral codes in society

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eval for hirschi’s control theory

  • does not explain why people commit crime even with strong bonds

  • interactionism- people with strong bonds commit crimes e.g Lucy Letby. the m/c are just as criminal but don't get labelled as much

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functionalist apprach to crime control

Durkheim

  1. reaffirming boundaries : it reinforces what behaviour is not accepted in society 

  2. changing values: control over sexuality 

  3. social cohesion - ti brings community together against the deviance and unite people as it creates a general consensus makes society grateful for the measures of control in place 

  4. safety valves - deviant acts as a pressure release which demonstrates the level of control still in place as it prevents the deviant acts from becoming criminal 

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Marxist approach to crime control

  • ALthusser- Repressive state apparatus and ideological state apparatus 

  • repressive is the official wars of enforcing the norms and values of the bourgeoisie : formal 

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Feminist approaches to crime control

Heidensohn- control theory for women 

women are controlled by  work- the glass ceiling 

 home- gender roles 

 public - they dont go out late at night in fear of sexual assault, controlled especially by the laws 

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Disciplinary power

in modern times we are no longer policing the body of individuals but rather policing their minds and soul 

  • increasingly done through the cctv and surveillance, education, workplace 

  • not only are we constantly being watched we also do not know when we are being watched and so surveillance has become self surveillance and therefore discipline has become self discipline 

  • punishment is structured, organised and routine

  • main purpose is self surveillance and discipline

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Bentham

Panopticon

  • prisoners practise self surveillance as guard tower flashes bright lights macking it ambiguous if guards are in a tower 

  • this is seen through how people represent themselves online 

  • the level of cctv cameras present even if they do not work 

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goffman

eval

criticism of foucault

  • - states that prisoners often find ways of resisting controls in prisons. neglects the expressive (emotional) aspects of punishment

  • Daniel Khalife

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eval of foucault

  • extremely strong contribution as he created discussions on self- surveillance and assessed the impact of technology on control 

  • public humiliation still exists through the media e.g cancel culture 

  • Western centric view because sovereign still dominates many countries - he would counter this as in less developed countries sovereign power this would be the best way to maintain control 

  • CCTV displaces crime rather than preventing it - Norris 

  • Gill and Loveday - very few robbers thieves and burglars, shoplifter are put off by CCTV

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Koskela

CCTV used to justify male gaze as it gives men more power over women. 

this is a male dominated industry and women commit less crime and so it doesn't justify the level of scrutiny placed on women

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Mathiesen

Foucault is outdated whereas panopticon system as the few monitored the many but now many monitor the few 

A03: matt Handcock

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Thompson

for those in power. e.g politicians, this type of surveillance is endangering as they are held more accountable. Media can uncover and access politicians easily as it can damage the status quo 

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McCahill

  • hierarchies of surveillance 

  • bottom up surveillance is not always possible  

  • those in power still control the discourse and have more power over the individuals as seen through anti terrorism police having the power to confiscate phones and cameras. 

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Mann et al

  • police are benign surveyed

  • ‘sousveillance’ 

  • individuals are able to police the police as seen through the murder of george floyd

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Haggerty and Ericson

Assemblages

  • a collection of things 

  • two types of tech benign combined and used together to provide twice the data on individuals 

  • eg. biometric scanners or ring doorbells being able to survey the delivery of parcels as well as being able to call the police

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Acturial justice and assessment

  •   predicting the likelihood of an individual to commit crime such as age, ethnicity, gender, religion and location  

  • airport screen compile risk factors lead to stop and search 

  • insurance companies use these factors to determine the risk of using 

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Freely and Simon

argue that new ‘technology of power’ is emerging which is different from Foucault’s disciplinary power.

  1. It focuses on groups rather than individuals

  2. It is not interested in rehabilitation of offenders but preventing them from offending 

  3. It uses calculation of risks or actual ‘actuarial analysis’. 

  • predicting who to surveil

A03:

  • In predicting who to surveil and predicting risk - it leads to institutional bias

  • BBC news found insurance was 1/3 higher in a ethnically diverse area compared to a majority white area (despite these areas being next to eachother)

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eval of acturial justice

  • Young: left realist, calls this damage limitation as it reduces the risk of crime by using statistics 

  • marxism : the categorisation of the individuals into groups is problematic as the bourgeoise determine what is criminal and the statistics used 

  • only targeting certain groups which means that the statistics will only show one group of people 

  • Becker: the labelling leads to a self fulfilling prophecy and encourages deviancy 


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Clarke

Rational choice theory

  • onsequences vs rewards 

  • proves that crime is a calculated choice- the easier the crime the more likely criminals will commit the crime

solution

  • the solution would be situational crime prevention such as target hardening, increasing surveillance 

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Felson

‘Design crime out ‘

  • things like putting hand rails on benches to prevent vagrancy 

    removing public bathrooms means that there are less places to take drugs and take part in public indecency 

    • led the overhaul of the New York authority bus terminal. in the bus terminal they was criminal and deviant behaviour such as drug taking, public disturbances and public indecency 

    • in response they redesigned the entire bus terminal to make the crimes less likely to happen 

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application of Felson design crime out

  • A03: home office 'don't advertise your home’ campaign 

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Eval of situational crime prevention

  • only reduces certain type of crimes

  • focus more on petty street crimes

  • assumes that people make a rational choice when commiting crimes 

  • it does not deal with the root causes of crime 

  • Gill and Loveday- found that very few robbers, burglars, shoplifters are putt of by CCTV 

  • Norris- CCTV does not always prevent crime and this you could link to cognitive maps

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Chaiken et al

displacement of crime 

Spatial: 

  • the crime moves somewhere else and to a different space 

Temporal: 

  • the crime moves to a different time 

Target:

  • chooses a different victim

Tactical:

  • change the method - may lead to crimes becoming more severe 

Functional

  • change the type of crime 

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Wilson and kelling

Broken Windows theory

  • one broken window leads to many broken windows as the consequences are seen as less severe 

  • deterioration of environment attracts criminals and crime as its seen as an area where you can get away with crime 

  • links to cognitive maps- where individuals know where the best places to commit crimes are.

solution

  • zero tolerance policing and environmental crime prevention 

  • improving the environment deters criminals such as blocks of flats not having anymore than 3 storeys and reducing shared areas such as lift shafts 

  • communitarianism- idea that the community is responsible for cleaning up their environment 

  • zero tolerance policing as the punishment of minor crimes harshly major crimes don't happen and therefore this acts as an effective deterren

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solution for Wilson and Kelling zero tolerance policing

  • zero tolerance policing and environmental crime prevention 

  • improving the environment deters criminals such as blocks of flats not having anymore than 3 storeys and reducing shared areas such as lift shafts 

  • communitarianism- idea that the community is responsible for cleaning up their environment 

  • zero tolerance policing as the punishment of minor crimes harshly major crimes don't happen and therefore this acts as an effective deterrence 

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A02 for zero tolerance

  • In NY Kelling was advising police on the ‘clean car programme’, cars with vandalism were taken off the road immediately and can only return once cleaned.

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Kaizer et al

Letterbox experiment

  • 13% of passers- by stole the envelope with graffiti this rate raised to 27% and with litter to 25%

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Young

Eval for zero tolerance policing

  • zero tolerance success is a myth by politicians and police to take credit for falling crime 

  • crime rates were falling before the zero tolerance policies 

  • it allows the police to use their power and ‘label’ individuals 

  • eventually you may end up with ‘military policing’ as it would not be for the benefit of the public but for the benefit of themselves as they are ruling through the threat of crimes 

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other eval points for zero tolerance policing

  • only focuses on street and petty crimes

  • gives the police power to discriminate and marginalised

  • it focuses too much on punishment rather than dealing with the cause 

  • its reactive rather than proactive 

  • it leads to the displacement of crimes- Chaiken

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lea and young -tackling the root causes of crime

  • structural causes of crimes such as poverty, unemployment, relative dep and marginalization 

  • They are similar to right realism as they acknowledge that crime is a growing problem and their reliance on official crime statistics which are used to inform policies. 

  • they recommend the New Deal, Free school Meals 

  • the square of crime - M+Y , introduce democratic

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A02 for Lea and young tackling the root causes of crime

  • minimum wage- introduced in 1998, by 2024 minimum wage will be £11.44 

  • EMA - encouraged post 16 education to attend all lessons with £30 a week incentives. it went directly to the child 

  • Free school meals - introduced by cons government by david cameron which stops crime out of necessity 

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Lea and young - policing and control

  • Police should be accountable to the public 

  • they should take a multi- agency approach to prevent crime through informal agencies like family and education and healthcare 

  • through community outreach programmes and suspicious inquiries on children in healthcare, social services, Midwife House checks. agencies are checking each other

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Matthew - square of crime

allows for everyone's perspective to be considered when creating policy to tackle crime

everyone becomes responsible for crime prevention, crime and rehabilitation due to the impact everyone has on policy 

democratic policing - Lea and young 

links to Braithwaite- Reintegrative shaming to which they shame the act and not the offender 


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   (AO3) did New Labour policies support Left or Right Realist ideas? 

  • Introduction of ASBOs in 1988 which were given for vandalism, disturbing the police Right realist  

  • ABC 1999- acceptable behaviour orders were given to young people to get them to admit they had done something wrong. Parents decided if their child was to have an ABC- Left realist 

  • Parenting contracts and orders 2006 - parents were forced to attend parenting classes if their child had committed a misdemeanour,  and if they didn't attend they were to be punished - Some left realist 

  • Curfews - banned people from going to certain places at certain times: called the separate and dispersal act of 2004, - Right realist 

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eval of new labour polices

  • many new labour policies don't exist 

  • disintegrative shaming in the UK e.g sex offenders registers  

  • ineffective and easily breached 

  • some were seen as a badge of honor. 

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Eval of left realism

  • impractical to assume that victims would want to interact with the offenders 

  • expensive to implement these policies 

  • due to the pre existing tensions and distrust between the police and the public e.g boroughs of Liverpool not communicating with the police

  • EM’s especially black people don't trust police as they are more likely to be marginalised by the police as seen through the george floyd murder

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Olivia pratt

 Korbal, 8 yr old shot, no one gave information on the death until incentives were offered due to mistrust in the police.

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Kinsley et al

  •  the police would have to drastically improve their clean up rate to gain public trust 

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Henry and Milovanovic

  • left realism focuses on the state definition of crime and doesn't take a transgressive approach which mean that there is a disregard for crime that doesn't cause direct harm such as white collar crime 

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a03 analysis for who is more likely to be a victims of crime

  • The 2018 CSEW showed that nationally about 1 in 4 people experienced a crime against themselves or home

  • Those most at risk of violent crimes were young men (aged 16-24, full time students and the unemployed.

  • The risk for people aged 75 or over was just 0.4 %.

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social construction of victimization

  • many unreported and unrecorded crime 

  • police construct who a victim is 

  • the court also have the power to decide who is a victim 

  • victimless crimes- white collar crimes such as fraud and tax evasion are seen as victimless as they have no direct victim 

  • individuals are not aware they are a victim of crime 

  • people can refuse the label of victim 

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Positivist victimology

  • the characteristics people may have that make them more susceptible to being a victim of crime 

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Tierney

  • positive victimology looks at the circumstances and characteristics that make an individual more prone and likely to participate in being a victim of crime 

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Hentig

  • Looked at how there were 13 characteristics that made an individual more likely to be a crime 

  • argued being a woman, elderly, mentally and physically ill and location in which individuals lived in 

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Miers

 identifies positivist victimology as having three features:

  1. Aims to identify the factors that produce patters in victimology (what makes groups/individuals more likely to be victims?)

  2. Focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence- person on person crime such as stabbings or theft, they allow us to know who the victim of crime is 

  3. Aims to identify victims who have contributed to their own victimisation.

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wolfgang

  • studied 588 homicides in Philadelphia and found that 26% of victims precipitated their attack 

  • they were the ones who initiated the violence 

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evaluation of positivist victimology

  • Highlights link between characteristics of individuals and likelihood of being a victim of crime 

  • victim blaming - Amir found that in ⅕ of rape cases the vicitim precipitated the attack i/e ‘ the victim was asking for it’ 

  • 1% of all rape accusations end in convictions 

  • looks at who is most likely to be a victim of crime but no the impact on the individual 

  • ignores crimes where victims are unaware that they are victims

  • those who do fit the characteristics are not all victims of crimes especially the study done by Hentick is outdated 

  • ignores the structural factors such as poverty, homelessness, unemployment

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critical vicitmology

  1. Based on structural factors like patriarchy and poverty

  2. The state has the power to deny victims of labels of being identified as a victim. 

Victim is a social construct, the same way criminal is. The CJS decides who gets the label of victim. i.e. When a police officer does not prosecute a husband for domestic violence, they have denied her the status of ‘victim’

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mawby and Walklate

gue that victimisation is a form of structural powerlessness.

AO2: Walklate- 

  • idea that the state has the power to apply and deny the label of victim 

  • the idea that victimhood is a social construct through things like the CJS, the police the courts

  • e.g if police do not wishes to record DV as a crime, the husband does not get the label of criminal and the wife does not get the label of victim 

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Tombs and whyte

  • talks about the safety of crimes at work 

  • employers are protected by laws when incidents happen at work 

  • label criminal instances at work as an accident which allows them to deny the criminal label and deny the victim the victim label 

  • Snider: the rich make the law 

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hierarchy of victimology

  • there are levels of status in victimhood 

  • this is based on age, occupation and gender

  • the powerless ( the ability to influence policy and government) are most likely to be a victim of crime and yet are the least likely to be recognised by the state 

A02

Grenfell

  • 2017, burnt due to flammable cladding 

  • victims had a low status and most were w/c with a huge migrant population which by extension meant there were plenty of e/m 

  • they were denied the status of victims and until 2021 for all the victims to be rehoused

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eval of critical victimology

  • disregards the role of victims bringing victimisation to themselves, e.g not making their homes more secure- positivist critics 

  • its valuable in us understanding how the powerful can construct who ‘victims’ are benefitting the powerful as the expense of the powerless 

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Gender and victimisation

  • Men are more likely to be victims of violent street crimes- Problems- often not reported particularly men- Crime stats not reliable so how do we know that women are more likely to be victims of sexual and domestic crimes?

  • Around 70% of homicide victims are male 

  • Women more likely to be victims of rape and domestic violence

  • 2012-13 published by ONS estimated around 1.2 million women suffered domestic violence

  • There is one incident of domestic violence reported to the police every minute and 2 women are killed each week by a current or former partner

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Waklate A02

Women make up 92% of all rape cases-  2 out of 3 do not report it though.

  1. crime happens 

  2. they have to repeat and relieve the experience the court room 

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Ruth coppinger case

rotests in Ireland against sexual consent unfolded after a man was acquitted of raping a 17-year-old, with the defense citing the victim's clothing as a factor. An Irish MP, Ruth Coppinger, highlighted the issue in parliament by displaying a lace thong, condemning the "routine victim-blaming" prevalent in such cases.

  • secondary victimization

  • highlighting the issues of positivist victimology- victim blaming

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Adler

  • single mothers are less likely to be believed in court compared to married mothers and men 

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ethnicity and crime

SEW and Home Office statistics show minority ethnics are more likely to be victims of most crimes than whites

All minority ethnic groups are likely to be victim of burglary and vehicle theft than whites

Black and Indian ethnic groups are more likely to be robbed

Blacks more likely than white to be assaulted or murdered

The BCS estimates that both Black and Asian were up to 14 times more likely to be victim of a racially motivated incident than white people

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why men are more likely to be vicitims of crime

  • Mcrobbie - Bedroom culture - girls are being tightly controlled and so less likely to be a victim of crime 

  • subcultures ( lea and young) 

  • status frustration cohen 

  • miller focal concerns 

  • feminisation of the economy and the crises of masculinity ( winlow, Mac and ghail, Messerschmidt)- taking jobs that put them in dangerous positions such as bouncers which means they are more likely to be a victim of crime 

  • messerschmidt- hegemonic masculinity 

  • unemployment : men are more likely to be the breadwinner and so when unemployed more likely to put themselves in positions of trouble to provide for their families

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Sutherland

differential association

  • people in urban areas commit crimes due to ‘differential association: if someone interacts with other lawbreakers, they are likely to follow suit and more likely to be a victim 

    1. Frequency- How often an individual spends time with a criminal 

    2. Duration- how long they spend time with these criminals 

    3. Priority- how important these criminals are to them 

    4. Intensity- how important crime is to the individual who are hanging around with, 

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wilson

: found that young people are the group most likely to be victims of crime

In 2003- a separate Crime and Justice survey was conducted with 10-15 year olds- 35% of 10-15 year olds had been victims of at least one personal crimes such as assault, robbery or theft

CSEW only looks at adults aged 16 and over and therefore under 16’s are being denied the status of victim

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social class and vicitmisation

AO2- Areas with high levels of deprivation- 2014/15 CSEW found the 20% of poorest areas face twice the risk of being a victim of burglary and nearly double the risk of vehicle-related theft

Poorest in society tend to be most likely victims of crime.  The hard pressed- unemployed, long term sick and those living in rented accommodation- most likely to be a victim of crime 

according to left realists they due to the structural issues related to relative deprivation they are more likely to place themselves in situations where they have to commit crimes 

right realism would argue that environments they reside in have more crime and so they are more likely to be victims of crime 

Areas with high levels of deprivation- Wilson and kelling Broken theory  more crime would equal to more victims

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inverse victimization law

people with the least amount of valuable items are most likely to be a victim of crime and on the flip side those who have the most valuable goods are the least likely to be a victim of crime as they are most likely to be protected 

A03: stormzy getting the police called on him 

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A02 for victims of white collar crimes

some point

A majority of people in a recent survey – 70% – believed that white collar crime contributed to the Great Recession of 2008-2009


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Newburn and Rock

survey found that of 300 homeless people, they were 12 times more likely to have experienced violence than the general population. On eight in ten had been urinated on when sleeping 

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Sir philip green

  • owned BHS which had a private pension fund and they went into administration and BHS and private pension fund became liquidated. employees paid into a pension scheme for 30 years and so Sir philip green took the pensions and employees received nothing

Sociological Explanations: 

  • Sayer: rich include loopholes in laws to take advantage of the system

  • chambliss: capitalism is criminogenic, ‘ dog eat dog’ society

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tombs and whyte

  • Health and safety regulations 

  • label crimes as accidents to deny the status of victim 

  • Awaab Ishaq- 2yo died from breathing in too much black mould, courts found that the house was deemed unfit for human habitation, Landlord faced punishment 

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Box

deology that corporate crimes are less widespread or harmful than working class crime is capitalism's control of the state. ‘Mystification’. 

  • Kareem Seregeldin- 2008 financial crash only one person went to prison

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feminist effects of victimisation

Brownmiller- women live in fear of being attacked e.g Sarah Everand

Heidensohn- women are therefore more likely to be controlled due to victimhood label 

alklate (2004)- Secondary Victimisation in rape trials 

  • women are victims twice such as when the crime is committed and when they have to say it 

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Hoyle

l ots of effects other than physical harm and material loss. 

Anger

Anxiety

Fear 

Depression 

Withdrawal

Panic attacks 

PTSD

Feelings of powerlessness  


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