Islamic History and Key Concepts: From Mecca to the Caliphate

Islam

Submission [to God]

Jahiliyya

Age of ignorance / the pre-Islamic past

Hanifs

A group of spontaneous monotheists who entertained some monotheistic beliefs without committing themselves to either Judaism or Christianity

Polytheism/Monotheism

Multiple gods (Hinduism) vs one God (Islam, Christianity, Judaism)

Mecca

Birthplace of Prophet Muhammad; holiest city because Kaba is in here; trade hub and major religious center

Ka'ba

First proclaimed house of worship built by Abraham and son Ishmael; previously house pagan idols until Muhammad's conquest of Mecca in 630CE; Muslims pray facing it

Muʿalaqāt (the hanging Odes)

Poems / odes hanging in the Kaba

Yemen

Southernmost part of Arabian peninsula; home to the relatively sophisticated Sabaean or Himyarite civilization; before Islam hosted Jewish and Christian communities

Byzantine Empire (c. 313-1453 CE)

One of the major imperial neighbors of Arabia; involved in decades of war with Sassanids; centered in Constantinople and fell when Ottomans captured the city in 1453

Sasanian Empire (c. 224 - 651 CE)

Powerful imperial neighbor to the Arabs; was severely exhausted by wars with Byzantines and internal strife; conquered in 650 CE by Arab-Islamic forces

Zoroastrianism

A monotheistic pre-Islamic religion of ancient Persia; official religion of the Persian-speaking elite of the Sasanid Empire

Banu Hashim

The Prophet's clan from the Quraysh tribe in Mecca into which Muhammad was born

Abu Talib

The Prophet's uncle and protector, raised Muhammad after death of his grandfather, head of Banu Hashim; stood by Muhammad, but did not embrace his teaching

Jinn

Supernatural beings featured in Arabia lore; sometimes called spirits

Khadija

Muhammad's first wife; well skilled and respected trader; staunch supporter for Prophet; mother of Fatima

Fatima

Daughter of Muhammad and Khadija; married prophet's cousin Ali; mother of al-Hasan, al-Husayn; most well known and revered, especially by Shiites and is considered one of the four most virtuous women in the world

Hasan and Husayn

Muhammad's grandsons; Al-Hasan was the elder son of Ali who abdicated his caliphal claim in favor of Muawiya

Yathrib / Medinat Rasul Allah

Agricultural oasis; was renamed Medina (the city of the Prophet)

Hijra

Emigration to Medina; designated as the first year of the Muslim era

Munafiqun

The hypocrites of Medina; pagan members of the Medinan tribes who adopted Islam out of expediency

Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, Banu Qurayza

The Jewish tribes of Medina

The Ansar

The Helpers; local Muslims of Medina who invited Muhammad to city to arbitrate feuds and subsequently hosted and provided for his Meccan followers after the Hijra.

The Muhajirun

The Quraysh Immigrants; Muhammad's supporters who emigrated with him to Medina during the Hijra, abandoning their possessions in Mecca.

The Constitution of Medina

Document drafted by Muhammad upon arrival to Medina, establishing him as the undisputed religious and political leader.

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyya (628 CE)

Political agreement between Muhammad and Meccan leadership that allowed Muslims to perform the pilgrimage the following year and highlighted the Prophet's growing prestige.

'Aisha

Prophet's youngest wife; daughter of Abu Bakr; led a significant armed opposition against Caliph Ali at the Battle of the Camel.

Caliph (khalīfa)

"Successor" of the Prophet; was the political and religious leader elected to head the Muslim community (umma) after Muhammad's death establishing the caliphate as the state ruled under this successor's authority.

The Rightly Guided Caliphs (al-khulafāʾ al-rāshidūn)

The 4 immediate successors to the Prophet: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali.

Ulama

Muslim scholars; the learned elite of the Muslim community; viewed as custodians and interpreters of the Quran and the Prophet's Sunna.

The Sunna

The precedent of the Prophet; the highly esteemed record of the Prophet's habits, mentality, and decisions, functioning as the second principal source of divine guidance and Islamic law alongside the Quran.

Abu Bakr (d. 634)

Close friend of Muhammad and first caliph (also, 'Aisha's father); became the first caliph after Muhammad's death, preventing a fatal split in the umma.

Ridda Wars (Wars of Apostasy) 632-34 CE

Military campaigns launched by the first caliph, Abu Bakr, to suppress successionist Arab tribes after Muhammad's death, resulting in the decisive triumph of the Muslim state and the political consolidation of the entire Arabian Peninsula.

'Umar b. al-Khattab (d. 644 CE)

Companion of Muhammad and second caliph.

'Uthman b. 'Affan (d. 656 CE)

Companion of Muhammad and third caliph.

'Ali b Abi Talib (d. 660 CE)

Cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, fourth caliph.

First civil war (fitna) 656-661 CE

Internal conflict triggered by the murder of Caliph Uthman.

The Battle of the Camel

First major war of the Fitna wars; Decisive victory won by Caliph Ali's army; fought against Aisha, Talha, and al-Zubayr

The Battle of Siffin

Major confrontations between the forces loyal to Ali and opposition led by Muawiya and his Syrian forces that ended inconclusively when Muawiya proposed arbitration based on the Quran.

The Kharijites

"Seceders"; a radical faction that split from Ali's ranks after the Battle of Siffin in protest against human arbitration.

The Shiah/Shi'ism

Theological and political movement that views Ali b. Talib and descendants as the only legitimate and divinely chosen leaders (imams) of the Muslim community; rejected the legitimacy of the first three caliphs who usurped Ali's right to rule.

Umayyads (ruled 660-750 CE)

Prominent family of Quraysh that takes over rule of the Islamic state after the murder of 'Ali; relatives of Caliph Uthman.

Mu'awiya

Became caliph in 661 and established the Umayyad dynasty; Was the primary rival of Ali following murder of Uthman by declaring himself the avenger of the deceased Caliph; Died in 680 CE; significant figure in early Islamic history.

Muawiya

Founder of the Umayyad dynasty; cousin of Uthman; proclaimed himself as the rightful avenger for the blood of the murdered third Caliph.

Yazid

Son and designated successor of Muawiya, whose accession was criticized as an attempt to institute a hereditary monarchy and whose rule is infamous for the massacre of the Prophet's grandson al-Husayn at Karbala.

Al-Husayn

Prophet's younger grandson; younger son of Ali and Fatima; was the Prophet's only living grandson who challenged Yazid's authority leading to massacre and murder by Umayyad forces at Karbala; this became a central symbolic tragedy and source of martyrdom for Shiites.

Karbala

Site in Iraq where Prophet's grandson al-Husayn was massacred by Umayyad forces.

'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan

A significant figure in the Umayyad dynasty, noted for his contributions and rule.

Qurʾan

Religious text representing the word of God; principal source of Islam that was revealed through the Prophet throughout a 20+ year period.

Asbab al-nuzul

Occasions of revelation; refers to the exact historical circumstances in response to which certain verses of the Quran were revealed.

Al-kitab

The Book [of God]; a common synonym for the Quran.

Ahl al-kitab

People of the Book (Christians, Jews, Sabaens... eventually all non-Muslim minorities receive similar status); refers to non-Muslim communities that had received divine revelations such as the Christians and Jews.

Gabriel

An angel who served as the intermediary between God and Muhammad.

'Uthmanic codex

The standard canonical collection of the Quranic text commissioned by Caliph Uthman; effort was prompted by disputes over the correct reading of Quranic passages; noncanonical versions of the Quran were destroyed as part of this effort.

Zayd Ibn Thābit

Muhammad's former scribe who was commissioned by Caliph Abu Bakr to compile the first Quranic text.

Sura

A chapter of the Quran which has 114 of them; arranged roughly in order of length with the longest at the beginning.

Aya

"Sign," "marvel," or "wonder"; a verse in the Quran.

Meccan

Refers to the period when Muhammad was in Mecca before the hijra in 622 CE as well as the shorter suras revealed during this time; these suras differ from Medinan suras in length and tenor.

Medinan

Refers to the period following Muhammad's emigration to Medina (Yathrib); longer suras were usually revealed during this period and deal with a diverse range of topics related to social, political, and legal needs.

The disconnected letters

Groups of writings that preceded 29 suras; their exact meaning and purpose have intrigued and baffled scholars for 14 centuries; the standard Muslim view is that they are a mystery known fully only to God.

Tafsīr

Body of work dedicated to Quran interpretation; emerged by end of 8th century to explain and interpret the Quranic text for application to Muslim life; different groups such as Sunni, Shiite and Sufi traditions developed their own interpretations.

Hifz/hafiz

The act of memorizing the Quran by heart.

Sunna

The exemplary "way of the Prophet" referring to the exemplary code of behavior expected of Muslims; provides the foundation of ethics, morals, and legal practice in Islam; is second to only the Quran.

Hadith

"News" or "report"; the individual reports that make up the sunna and include accounts about theological questions, moral advice, worship, legal rulings, and communal life.

Isnād

The chain of transmitters of a hadith report; role is to certify the accuracy of transmission of the Hadith.

Matn

The main body or content of the hadith, recording what the Prophet or his companions had actually said or done.

Hadith forgery

Waḍʿ al-ḥadīth; forged or fabricated hadith which are seen as unsuitable as guidance for the faithful.

Hadith criticism

Scholarly activity undertaken to authenticate the body of circulating prophetic traditions; experts examined integrity, piety, and memory strength of transmitters to reduce possibility of forgery.

ʿIlm al-rijāl

"The science of the hadith" involved the screening of transmitters to assess the reliability of their reports.

Companions of the Prophet (ṣaḥāba)

Members of Muhammad's inner circle who transmitted the first reports; the life of these individuals was the ideal that all later Muslims should emulate.

Ṣaḥīḥ

"Sound/Authentic"; A category of hadith deemed highly reliable.

Ḥasan

"Fair/Acceptable"; a category of hadith transmitted by individuals whose integrity was recognized enough for their report to be used as a basis for legal ruling, but not the highest level of trustworthiness.

Ḍaʿīf

"Weak"; a category of hadith that was generally considered unsuitable as a basis for legal decisions and rulings because the transmitters did not meet the rigorous criteria for authenticity.

Canonization of hadith

The 6 collections of hadith achieved canonical status in Sunni Islam; 6 Sahih books.

Haram

Forbidden.

Halal

Permissible.

Shariʿa

"Islamic law," the divinely revealed path to salvation that has governed the life of the Muslim communities worldwide up to modern times.

Meccan (period/suras/verses)

Refers to the period when Muhammad was in Mecca before the hijra in 622 CE as well as the shorter suras revealed during this time; these suras differ from Medinan suras in length and tenor.

Fiqh

Juridical understanding/Islamic jurisprudence; represents the sum of total juridical and moral-ethical wisdom accumulated by Muslims over time; involves the expertise that allow believers to interpret the Quran and Sunna

Fuqahaʾ

Islamic legal theorist(s)/jurist(s)

Qadi

Judge

Mufti

Givers of legal rulings/opinions

Fatwa

a non-binding legal opinion

Usul al-fiqh

legal theory/principles of legal theory'; sources or foundations that Islamic legal theory uses to derive legal rulings and norms

Ijma'

consensus of the Muslim community

Qiyas

analogical reasoning; reasoning through analogy when there is no explicit ruling found through the Quran or Sunna

Raʾy

Personal opinions

Maslaha

community’s common good; allowed jurists to make decisions based on the consideration of human interest, allowing discretionary powers

'Urf/ʿadat

Local customs

Ijtihad

(independent reasoning), the exertion by a qualified jurist to derive legal rulings from the primary sources of Islamic law.

Imam

a leader or great scholar, in Shiism understood as one of the authoritative descendants of Muhammad

Madhhab

School of law; school of Islamic legal methodology or jurisprudence that grew out of regional legal practices of early Muslim communities

Sunni Schools of law

Maliki (Medina), Hanafi (Iraq), Shafi'I, Hanbali, and Zahiri (Baghdad) schools of law

Shi'I School

Jaʿfari school, named after the 6th imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq.

Abu Hanifa

(d. 767): Kufan scholar who favored using Quran and reason, afraid of forged hadiths, eponymous founder of the Hanafi school

Ibn Hanbal

(d. 855): Baghdad scholar who preferred questionable hadiths to reason, eponymous founder of the Hanbali school

Al-Shafi'i

(d. 820): scholar who united Partisans of Hadith and Partisans of Reason, eponymous founder of the Shafi school

Malik

(d. 796): famous scholar of Medina, eponymous founder of the Maliki school

The Mazalim courts

[the courts] for redress of wrongs, enforced by the caliph and their officials.

House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Ḥikma)

The intellectual/translation center in Baghdad under the Abbasids, established to promote knowledge and learning.

Abbasid Caliphate

The third Islamic caliphate, which succeeded the Umayyads and established Baghdad as its capital, fostering the so called "golden age" of Islamic science and culture.