Sociology - Socialisation , Culture and Identity (OCR)

Functionalism

Social inequality and difference are inevitable and serve a useful purpose. People in society are not, and should not be equal. There should be a hierarchy in society, so that there is order and ranking. They believe that this is a sign of a healthy society which benefits society's members.

Marxism

Social inequality can be explained by economic inequalities and the relationship of individuals to the economic structure of society. Believe in two main classes. The Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat. Marxists believe that the two classes will polarise and eventually the workers, developing a class consciousness will revolt. After this revolution the Communist society which will follow will be free of oppression, inequality, and exploitation.

Feminism

Seeks social, economic and political equality between men and women. Is a social and political theory which explains inequality by focusing on gender relations, rather than economic relations.

Norms

Agreed common forms of behaviour.

Value

A belief.

Status

Refers to a person or a groups social standing within society.

Ascribed Status

Is given to a person and is fixed and very difficult to change.

Achieved Status

Is earned, it is based on merit/talent or action.

Cultural Diversity

Relates to culturally embedded differences within society (e.g. Languages/religion/food/drink/clothing/decoration/art/music/dance)

Multiculturalism

Different cultures co-existing in the same society, each with an equal right to preserve their cultural heritage.

Barker (2003)

Says the purpose of multiculturalism is to celebrate differences (e.g. Teaching multi-faith religious educational)

Subculture

A group with shared norms and values; a distinct group within the majority.

High Culture

Cultural practices of the upper class, such as opera, classical music and theatre.

Popular Culture

Cultural practises with mass participation, such as soap operas, pop music, and Hollywood movies. The culture of the masses.

Consumer Culture

A culture based on what we buy and consume, often based on spending and material goods.

Globalisation

The process whereby national boundaries become less relevant and the world becomes a smaller more interconnected place.

Social Closure

Not allowing entry to 'outsiders'. A means of maintaining a high position in the status of hierarchy by restricting membership to a limited group of people.

Strinati (1995)

The media are largely responsible for creating popular culture in the UK.

Socialisation

The process where individuals, from birth, learn the norms and values of their society.

Nature vs. Nurture: Nurture Argument

Sociologists consider biological factors but are most interested in the role of social influences play on a persons life. Social and biological factors may be hard to separate (e.g. social factors might influence how we colour our hair)

Primary Socialisation

The learning of norms and values. Occurs up to a child going to school, usually occurs within the family.

Agents of Socialisation

Family, Education, Religion, Media, Peer Groups and Workplace

Agent of Socialisation: Family

Creates/shapes identity depending on its size snd structure. It also teaches basic norms and roles.

Agent of Socialisation: Education

Creates/shapes identity socialise with wider number of individuals. Teaches the rules and regulations of school.

Agent of Socialisation: Religion

Creates/shapes identity - know certain prayers. Understand worship and religious practise.

Agent of Socialisation: Media

Creates/shapes identity - Messages to influence the way you think and act. Certain advertisements for products you think you need.

Agent of Socialisation: Peer Groups

Creates/shapes identity - Encourage each other to share norms and values. Higher status peers are role models.

Why is socialisation important?

Includes nurturing; the way in which individuals are taught and learn the rules of social life and the norms and values of the group they live in. Socialisation ensures that culture is transmitted from one generation to the next and societies do not fall in to chaos and disorder.

Gillborn 1990

Describes the National Curriculum as ethnocentric, i.e. teaching British values and culture as being dominant over others.

Agent of Socialisation: Education: Bowles and Gintis (1976)

Argued that schools prepare students for the Capitalist (Marxist) workplace by teaching them - punctuality, discipline, obedience and diligence. The informal curriculum is more important than the formal curriculum. Critics of their theory argue that many students are not socialised to obey; resistance occurs both in school (detentions) and in the workplace (strikes etc.).

Social Control: Dennis (1993)

Looked at the links between family type and crime. He found that in the past traditionally families had exercised social control. This would have been in the form of sanctions to ensure that children did not become involved in crime. However, he argues that fatherless families do not have male roe models and that therefore there has been an increase in the number of boys turning to crime.

Social Control: Szazs (1971) (Marxist)

Argued that the label 'mental illness' has been used as a method of social control. He argued that the powerful in society use the label of mentally ill to control to deal with groups of people who they view as socially disruptive.

Positive Sanctions (rewards)

Pleasant things we do to make people conform and behave in a routine fashion.

Negative Sanctions (punishments)

The not very nice things we do to try and make people conform.

Agent of Socialisation: Religion: Voas and Crockett (2005)

Explored 'Believing with Belonging' - concluded there is a strong relationship between religious belief and belonging to a religious organisation.

Agent of Socialisation: Religion: Decline in religious identity

British Social Attitudes Survey (BSA 2006) reported a major decline in religious identity since the 1960s. 1964 - 26% did not identify with a religion. 2006 - 69% did not identity with a religion.

Agent of Socialisation: Media: Representing Social Groups - McRobbie (1976)

'Slim blondeness' to describe an archetypal slim blonde female which featured heavily in the media and encouraged young women to copy this appearance.

Agent of Socialisation: Media: Representing Social Groups - Currie (1999)

Teen magazines - dramatic increase in importance of beautification in recent years. Growth in significance of mens magazines e.g. GQ, FHM. Targeting consumer conscious males.

Agent of Socialisation: Media: Impact on audiences

Media has influence on its audiences. However it doesn't influence them to believe everything they see, read or hear in the media but rather the images and stories presented in the media will attitudes and possibly behaviour to some extent.

Agent of Socialisation: Media: Consumer Culture

Brand names compete via media and often use celebrity role models to sell products. Role models have a lot of power in selling a product (or not) and any media coverage, positive or negative may have an advantage in a commercial setting.

Agent of Socialisation: Media: Madell (2006)

In 2004 91% of young people (aged 11 to 16) owned a mobile phone. In 2005, it was found 16 year olds on average spent two and a half hours a day watching TV. In terms of socialisation this is important because teenagers are now spending more time watching TV, than socialising instead.

Agent of Socialisation: Workplace: Ward and Winstanley (2005)

The study looked at how workers 'came out' and disclosed their sexuality. They focused on six occupations; the police force, fire brigade, two civil servant departments and two banks. They found there was more interpersonal activity or informal discussions in the police and fire service working environments than in the other workplaces. Meaning concealing parts of your identity in these places are harder than in others. The study shows that the formal and informal occupational cultures of police officers and bankers are very different.

Agent of Socialisation: Workplace: Process of Socialisation

Individuals are socialised in the workplace, as they are by other agents of socialisation through, imitation, role models, pressuring people and control. Individuals learn their place in the hierarchy of the workplace and how to survive and what they need to do or who they need to know to gain promotion.

Agent of Socialisation: Peer Groups: Sewell (2000)

Uses the concept of 'cultural comfort zones' to describe how peer groups tend to include people from very similar social backgrounds. Sewell's work focuses particularly on ethnicity. Cultural comfort zones suggest peer groups form around issues of perceived commonality (what members of the group share in common).

Peer Groups: Skelton and Francis (2003)

Show how the role of peer groups is essential to understanding the use of playtime in primary schools. Shows how playgrounds are dominated by issues of space. As children begin to socialise outside school, peers can become even more influential and they continue to have a lasting influence beyond the age of 18.

Agent of Socialisation: Peer Groups: Rebellion and Resistance

They can form around issues of rebellion or resistance, as they offer an expression of individuality which is difficult to find elsewhere in society.

Agent of Socialisation: Peer Groups: Bennet (2006)

Studied a group of middle aged punks that shared the same interest and enthusiasm for punk music. This gave them a group coherence they had shared since their young punk days. Being punk was an important part of their identity.

Agent of Socialisation: Family: Sanctions

Socialisation within the family can also come from the use of positive and negative sanctions such as praising a child when they behave in the way a parent wants them to. When parents want to discourage inappropriate behaviour they can use negative sanctions.

Agent of Socialisation: Family: Gender Roles

Gender roles within the family are also likely to impact on a child's socialisation. If a child sees his father going out to work every day and being the main earner whilst the mother stays at home taking the role of home maker, its likely to impact their view on gender roles in family life. It doesn't mean they will copy those norms, or that they will share those same values believing men are the providers and women are the carers, but this formative experience is likely to influence their decisions and pathways later in life.

Difference

Our characters and features make us different to others around us. A person may choose to be deliberately different.

Identity: Bradley (1996)

Says there is a difference between: Passive Identity: one that you were born or socialised into (e.g. gender/age/ethnicity). Active Identity: one that you actively choose to pursue (e.g. being a footballer or singer etc.).

Identity: Woodward (2000)

Identity is about choice; choosing to belong to something or identify with someone.

Sexuality and Identity: Weeks (1991)

Argues that sexual identification is complex because there are people who identify themselves as gay and participate in the gay community but do not participate in same-sex sexual activity. But there are also people who do have same-sex sexual activity but do not identify themselves as gay.

Sexuality and Identity: Plummer (1996)

Sees homosexuality as a process and discusses the 'homosexual career' where a male who had accepted the label of homosexual will seek out others and join a subculture in which stereotypical homosexual characteristics become the norm.

Sexuality and Identity: Rich (1980)

Argues that women sexuality is oppressed by men in patriarchal society, though institutions such as marriage through sexual violence and rape and through the sexual objectification of women.

Disability Identities: Medical Model

Sees disability as a medical problem. Focuses on the limitations caused by impairment. This approach leads to defining a disabled person by their disability or impairment. This leads to a 'victim-blaming' mentality, where the problem lies with the disabled individual, rather than with a society that has not met their needs.

Disability Identities: Medical Model: Shakespeare (1996)

Argues that disabled people are often socialised into this way of seeing themselves as victims and that 'the person with impairment may have an investment in their own incapacity, because it can become the rationale for their own failure'.

Disability Identities: Carol Gill (1997)

Recognises for those becoming disabled in later life it can cause problems because when you become a member of the group that you have previously felt pity or fear for, you can't help but turn those feelings round on yourself.

Disability Identities: Zola (1982)

Argues that the language we use to describe disability is significant, because, the language we use to describe people is borrowed from discriminatory able bodied society. It says that they are de-formed, dis-eased, dis-ordered, ab-normal and most of all its telling them they are an in-valid.

Disability Identities: Muragami (2009)

Argues that a disabled person has the ability to construct a self-identity that accepts their impairment but is independent of it. So they see their disability as just one of their characteristics.

Gender Identities: Sex

Biologically determined and is male or female.

Gender Identities: Transsexual

A person who's mind is literally, physically, trapped in the body of the opposite sex.

Gender Identities: Desmond Morris (1975) and Robert Winston (2002)

Believe that in relation to sex, there are biological differences between males and females. This view is known as 'biological determinism'.

Gender Identities: Creation and Reinforcement through socialisation: Stanley and Wise (2002)

Gender role socialisation is rather simplistic and overly deterministic.

Gender Identities: Types of femininities: Assertive Femininity

Girls and women who challenge the traditional feminine stereotype. Blackman (1995) - Groups of New Wave Girls from lower middle and working classes used their sexuality to challenge male dominance within school.

Gender Identities: Types of femininities: Passive (Subordinate) Femininity

Women and girls accept traditional ideas about how they should behave, such as being quiet and submissive.

Gender Identities: Types of femininities: Overly Feminine

A subcultural ideology of love and romance where the traditional feminine stereotype is exaggerated.

Gender Identities: Types of femininities: Double Life (Passive at home/more assertive outside)

Some Asian girls and women lead a double life, where they are more passive at home as they don't want to go against 'izzat' - family honour. Seidler (2006) - girls do not want to dishonour their families and so respect the norms and values of their families at home.

Gender Identities: Types of femininities: Girls in Sub Cultures

More rage against than resistance to typical expectations of girls. McRobbie (2007) - girls will form close friendship groups to help them come to terms with moving into feminine roles in adulthood, such as being a 'girlfriend'.

Gender Identities: Types of femininities: Normative Femininity

The view that there is a socially acceptable way for women and girls to dress and act. Osler and Vincent (2003) - girls didn't want to get into trouble at school so did not challenge authority. (Where as the boys who got into trouble were admired by their peer groups). Jackson (2006) - physical appearance was important to girls.

Gender Identities: How is gender socially constructed?

Media - showing women how they should look. Jobs - gender connotations.

Gender Identities: Parsons

Functionalist sociologist writing in the 1950s. Developed a concept called Sex Role Differentiation, which partially supported the biological determinism argument. Argued men were instrumental and should go out and earn money. Women were expressive and should take a caring role and look after the home an children.

Gender Identities: Stanley and Wise (2002)

Gender is socially constructed. Argue that simply being born male or female will not mean we adopt stereotypical masculine and feminine characteristics/behaviours. Our gender behaviours are determined by the way we are brought up, and the influences of those around us. These agents show us how we should behave and in addition, our masculinity/femininity is based on decisions we make ourselves, the way in which we exercise agency.

Gender Identities: Hegemonic Masculinity: Connell (2003)

Traditional masculinity, associated with male supremacy, heterosexuality, aggression and laddish culture. Behaviour is often macho and sexist, includes expectations of what women should do and be

Gender Identities: Meterosexual

A usually urban heterosexual male given to enhancing his personal appearance by grooming, beauty treatments and fashionable clothes. These are attributes stereotypically associated with gay men.

Gender Identities: Archer (2003)

Research by feminists has suggested hegemonic masculinity may not be the dominant masculinity in the UK. If we focus on hegemonic masculinity we don't see that the range of experiences and behaviours of what it means to be a 'man' in the contemporary UK.

Gender Identities: Willis (1977)

Young males who in the 1970s were 'learning to labour'. For them school was having a 'laff' and doing as little work as possible as they knew they were going into the labour markets, like their fathers, doing traditional manual work.

Gender Identities: Connell (2002): Complicit Masculinity

A masculinity which new men, for example, might be said to adopt in taking on a shared role in the family.

Gender Identities: Connell (2002): Marginalised Masculinity

Applicable to those for whom the changing nature of the labour market over the last 40 years has meant they can no longer assume there will be jobs for them after school, leaving many with a crisis.

Gender Identities: Connell (2002): Subordinate Masculinity

A masculinity which is concerning with gay men who are viewed as behaving differently to the expectations of the dominant hegemonic masculinity.

Social Class Identities: Marxist view of class

Social class differences are an important influence on peoples lives. Social class differences explain the opportunities and obstacles faced by individuals in society. Social class is related to economic position and a persons relationship to the 'means of production'. Two main classes - bourgeoisie and proletariat. These two classes are in conflict. Class consciousness - the moment when the working classes realise they are being exploited. This revolution has never happened in the UK and its very unlikely it ever will.

Social Class Identities: Postmodernism and Class Identity

Society cannot be explained by one overriding theory. The UK is an increasingly classless society. This is due to either social class differences not existing or they do, but are meaningless as individuals can choose their own identities. Social classes are changing/fragmenting due to globalisation, the traditional working class are losing jobs to migrant workers from eastern Europe.

Social Class Identities: Postmodernism and Class Identity: Lyon (1994)

Classes are changing and blurring because of consumer culture - individuals pick and mix lifestyles.

Social Class Identities: Working Class Culture and Identity: Willis (1977)

'Learning to Labour' study portrayed life in the working class communities as a shared culture. Jobs based in manual and unskilled labour. Traditional gender roles within the family. Boys were encouraged to follow the employment pathways of male role models in their families. Communities were strong, had a feeling of unity, solidarity and togetherness.

Social Class Identities: Working Class Culture and Identity: Skeggs (1997)

Studied working class identities. Studied working class women at a further education college - found they wanted to move away from traditional working class norms and values. They wanted to be seen as respectable, have careers and own their own homes. They wanted to disassociate themselves from other working class women.

Objective Class Identity

A person's class as measured by government or social research.

Subjective Class Identity

The class a person believes that they are in. This forms our class identity and is based on our norms and values etc.

Social Class Identities: Functionalism and Class

Our society is a meritocracy where the most talented will rise to the top, on merit, and succeed. Class is a ladder. Davis and Moore (1945) believed that social inequality (having different social classes) was part of a healthy and functioning society.

Social Class Identities: Postmodernism and Class

Class is not an important concept - if we want to understand the difference between groups of people we must look at the differences in consumption patterns. Inequality is not concerned with identity or social status.

Nature vs. Nurture: Nature Argument

Natural differences exist between individuals and are largely unchangeable (e.g. biological differences at birth which ascribe a sex). Are biological differences the basis of social difference that develop between men and women? (e.g. do women assume the dominant childcare role in a family because they can give birth and men can not)

Secondary Socialisation

The process is becoming more multidimensional. Children are becoming more independent.

Agent of Socialisation: Workplace

Creates/shapes identity - Dress codes. Teaches rules and regulations.

The Formal Curriculum

What you learn; the subjects you are taught in school, including the content of the lessons. The Government determines this in the form of the National Curriculum.

The Informal (Hidden) Curriculum

Teaches children everyday rules and regulations of school life. Transmits norms and values. Rules are not formally taught, but passed on through observation, imitation and talking to the students. Passes on the culture and expectations of the school.

Social Control

The rules of behaviour that are the basis for social organisation.

Social Control: Lees (1993)

Studied girls in secondary school. She found that informal social control was in place to ensure that girls' sexuality was regulated. Girls were afraid not to get a reputation as a 'slag' or someone who 'sleeps around' because if they did, this would attract negative comments and abuse. She believed that in effect boys were policing and controlling the girls' behaviour.

Formal Social Control

Formal ways of conformity through written rules, or codes of conduct, which individuals need to follow. Formal, legal, norms of behaviour where rules are written down. Usually enforced by a group pf people employed by the government. Main agencies of FSC are the police, the judiciary and sometimes the army. Exist to tell everyone what is and isn't acceptable in terms of behaviour.

Informal Social Control

Informal expectations for conforming behaviour. Rewarding or punishing people for their behaviour.

Agent of Socialisation: Media: Media imagery and copycatting

Media imagery has led to 'copycat' incidents - the imitation of events/scenes in the media.

Agent of Socialisation: Workplace: Process of Resocialisation

Occurs when individuals enter the world of work or when they change their occupation/workplace. They have to learn the rules, regulations ad associated norms of their new workplace.