Philosophy - Good

Socrates' belief about philosophy

Philosophy is about taking care of our souls by seeking knowledge and understanding.

Leo Strauss' definition of philosophy

The search for universal knowledge, aiming to understand the whole of existence.

Allegory of the Cave's relation to perception in IR

Leaders and countries often act based on false perceptions, like prisoners mistaking shadows for reality.

Allegory of the Cave's relation to leadership in IR

Wise leaders, like the freed prisoner, should guide others toward truth in politics and global affairs.

Allegory of the Cave and resistance to change in IR

People reject new ideas that challenge their beliefs, just as prisoners refuse to accept the outside world.

Allegory of the Cave's relation to constructivism in IR

Like prisoners shaped by shadows, nations act based on shared ideas and beliefs.

Three parts of the soul and their virtues

Reason → Seeks truth (Wisdom), Spirit → Seeks honor (Courage), Appetite → Seeks pleasure (Temperance).

Three parts of the state

Guardians → Wise rulers, Auxiliaries → Soldiers and enforcers, Workers → Farmers, builders, craftsmen.

Plato’s just political regimes

Aristocracy → Rule by the wise, Monarchy → Rule by a virtuous leader.

Plato’s unjust political regimes

Timocracy → Rule by honor-seekers, Oligarchy → Rule by the rich, Democracy → Rule by majority, Tyranny → Rule by a selfish dictator.

Connection between politics and ethics

Both aim for the highest good—ethics guides individuals, while politics guides society.

Why are humans political animals?

People naturally live in communities and need society to thrive.

Aristotle’s view on citizenship

Citizens are those who participate in government.

Rule of law

Laws should be fair, apply to everyone, and prevent corruption.

Why is justice the most important virtue?

Justice ensures fairness by balancing lawfulness, equality, and fairness.

How should power be used?

Leaders should serve the people, not themselves.

Aristotle’s 'good' regimes

Kingship (Monarchy) → Rule by one for the common good, Aristocracy → Rule by the wise and virtuous, Polity → A stable mix of democracy and oligarchy.

Aristotle’s 'bad' regimes

Tyranny → Rule by one for personal gain, Oligarchy → Rule by the rich, Democracy → Rule by the majority, often unstable.

Commonwealth (Res Publica)

A community united by laws and working for the common good.

Best form of government according to Cicero

A republic, which combines monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.

Key ideas of Stoicism

Control reactions, virtue is the highest goal, seek inner peace, true happiness from moral values.

Law of Nature

A universal moral law discovered through reason, guiding people toward justice and virtue.

Key features of the Law of Nature

Applies to everyone, not created by humans, aligns with justice and fairness.

Aquinas’ view on faith and reason

Both come from God and cannot contradict each other.

How does Aquinas combine faith and reason?

Faith includes divine truths beyond human understanding; reason uses intellect and senses.

Aquinas' view on ethics

Ethics is about following natural law and divine law to live virtuously.

Three types of virtues

Intellectual virtues, Moral virtues, Theological virtues.

Divine Grace

A gift from God that helps people achieve salvation.

Final goal of human life

Achieving salvation through a virtuous life in alignment with God’s will.

Aquinas’ ideal government

Monarchy → A wise and just ruler ensures order.

Can people resist a bad ruler?

Yes, if the ruler becomes a tyrant and governs unjustly.

Conditions for a just war

Legitimate authority, just cause, right intention.

Purpose of war

To stop evil and restore peace.

Aquinas’ rules for conduct in war

Must be fair and proportionate; avoid harming innocent people.

Aquinas’ Just War Theory vs. Grotius’

Aquinas based it on God’s law; Grotius on natural law.

Aquinas and Grotius on purpose of war

Aquinas believes in restoring moral order; Grotius focuses on maintaining justice.

Aquinas and Grotius on intervention in war

Aquinas does not emphasize intervention; Grotius allows it for severe injustices.

Main concepts of The Prince

Power, Virtù, Fortuna.

Message of The Prince

Politics and morality do not always align; the ends justify the means.

Goal of The Prince

Maintain unity and stability in the state.

People vs. prince in politics

People want rulers for the common good; princes often seek personal gain.

Republic vs. monarchy

Republic encourages freedom and participation; monarchy focuses on stability.

Bodin’s definition of a commonwealth

A well-ordered government ruled by a sovereign power.

Purpose of the commonwealth

To create conditions for virtuous, thoughtful, and pious lives.

Three elements of the commonwealth

Families, Sovereign Power, Common Concern.

Sovereignty according to Bodin

Absolute and perpetual; the sovereign has supreme authority.

Main role of the sovereign

To make general laws that govern the commonwealth.

Positive law

Laws created by human authority, applying to all subjects in the commonwealth.

Is the sovereign above all laws?

The sovereign is above human laws but must respect divine and natural laws.

Bodin’s commonwealth vs. Cicero’s

Bodin's is ruled by an absolute sovereign; Cicero's is a shared system based on law.

State of nature according to Hobbes

A world without government, chaotic and dangerous.

Hobbes' description of life in the state of nature

Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

Social contract

People give up some freedoms to a ruler for security and order.

Hobbes' preferred government

Monarchy, as a strong ruler is needed to maintain peace.

Law of Nature according to Locke

A moral guide that tells people to respect life, liberty, and property.

Locke’s three natural rights

Life, Liberty, Property.

Three branches of power in Locke’s theory

Legislative, Executive, Federative.

De Jure Belli ac Pacis

A book by Grotius establishing rules for war and peace.

When is war justified according to Grotius?

In self-defense, recovering property, or punishing serious crimes.

Grotius’ rules for conduct in war (Ius in Bello)

Actions must be necessary and fair; avoid harming civilians.

Importance of Montesquieu’s separation of powers

Prevents concentration of power and ensures fair governance.

Three branches of government according to Montesquieu

Legislative, Executive, Judicial.

Basic idea of utilitarianism

Actions are good if they create the most happiness.

Harm Principle

Government can intervene only if actions harm others.

Kant's definition of morality

Good actions come from duty, not consequences.

Categorical Imperative

A rule to decide if an action is moral based on universal law and respect for people.

Hegel’s dialectic method

Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis.

Purpose of the state according to Hegel

An ethical community that connects people to something greater.

Marx’s main beliefs

Society is divided into classes; capitalism exploits workers.

Communism according to Marx

A society with no private property and shared resources.

Historical materialism

Marx's idea that history is shaped by economics.

How does history develop, according to Marx?

From primitive communism to feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and communism.

Bentham's definition of utilitarianism

An action is good if it creates the greatest happiness.

Bentham’s key ideas

Pleasure equals good, pain equals bad; measure decisions based on happiness created.

Hedonic Calculus

A way to measure happiness using intensity, duration, certainty, and nearness.

Importance of the Hedonic Calculus

Helps make rational decisions by comparing different pleasures and pains.

Mill's change to Bentham’s utilitarianism

Not all pleasures are equal; some are more valuable than others.

Civil liberty according to Mill

People should be free to live as they choose, as long as they do not harm others.

Mill’s three freedoms

Freedom of Thought, Freedom of Action, Freedom of Association.