Psychology Perspectives, Cognitive Biases, and Research Methods

Biological Perspective

Focus: How brain structures, nervous system activity, hormones, and genetics influence behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

Focus: Observable behaviors and the role of learning through conditioning (classical, operant, or observational).

Cognitive Perspective

Focus: How people think, perceive, remember, and solve problems.

Humanistic Perspective

Focus: Personal growth, free will, and the drive toward self-actualization; emphasizes positive human qualities.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focus: Unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts.

Evolutionary Perspective

Focus: How natural selection and adaptation influence behavior and mental processes.

Sociocultural Perspective

Focus: How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Focus: An integrated approach combining biological, psychological, and social factors.

Positive Psychology Perspective

Focus: The scientific study of human strengths, well-being, and optimal functioning.

Cognitive bias

A systematic error in thinking that affects how people perceive, remember, and interpret information.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.

Anchoring Bias

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.

Availability Heuristic

Overestimating the importance or frequency of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

Hindsight Bias

Believing, after an event, that you 'knew it all along.'

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing successes to yourself and failures to outside factors.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating the role of personal traits and underestimating situational factors when explaining someone else's behavior.

Operational definition

A specific, measurable, and observable definition of a variable — explaining exactly how the variable will be measured or manipulated in a study.

Example of Operational Definition

Instead of saying "measure stress," you could operationally define it as "measuring cortisol levels in saliva" or "recording heart rate during a timed math test."

Validity

The extent to which a test, experiment, or measurement actually measures the concept it claims to measure.

Key Idea of Validity

Accuracy.

Example of Validity

If a psychology test is designed to measure memory but actually measures attention, it is not valid.

Reliability

The extent to which a test or measurement produces consistent, stable results over time or across different observers.

Key Idea of Reliability

Consistency.

Example of Reliability

If you take the same IQ test twice in similar conditions and get similar scores, it is reliable.

Research Design

The overall plan or strategy that outlines how a research study will be conducted to address specific research questions or objectives.

Common Types of Research Designs

Experimental, correlational, and descriptive.

Methodology

The systematic procedures and techniques used to conduct research within a specific research design.

Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Quantitative = numerical data (e.g., test scores); Qualitative = non-numerical, descriptive data (e.g., interview transcripts).

Likert Scale

A rating scale (often 1-5) measuring attitudes, opinions, or perceptions; respondents choose their level of agreement with a statement.

Structured Interview

Predetermined questions in the same order for all participants.

Unstructured Interview

Open-ended conversation with no fixed order of questions.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to give answers seen as socially acceptable rather than truthful.

Example of Social Desirability Bias

Students might say they always do their homework on time even if they don't.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a real-world setting without interference.

Case Study in Psychology

An in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon.

Generalization Difficulty of Case Study

Focus is on one specific case, so results may not apply to broader populations.

Wording Effect

Subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents' interpretations and responses.

Survey Technique

Research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures.

Correlation

Expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause; can be either positive or negative.

Positive Correlation

A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other.

Negative Correlation

A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other.

Survey Method

The survey method involves asking people to fill out surveys to gather data.

third variable problem

the fact that a causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of third-variable correlation

Clinical Psychology

Focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Often works with more severe psychological conditions.

Counseling Psychology

Helps people cope with life challenges and improve well-being. Often addresses less severe mental health issues than clinical psychology.

Developmental Psychology

Studies human growth and change across the lifespan, from infancy through old age.

Sports Psychology

Focuses on the mental and emotional aspects of athletic performance and exercise.

School Psychology

Works in educational settings to support students' learning, behavior, and emotional well-being.

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology

Applies psychological principles to workplace behavior, productivity, and employee satisfaction.

Psychiatry

A medical specialty (not just a subfield of psychology) focused on diagnosing, treating, and preventing mental disorders, often using medication.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and unresolved internal conflicts. Behavior is influenced by instincts, repressed memories, and emotional struggles from the past.

Cognitive Perspective

Emphasizes how people think, perceive, remember, and solve problems. Behavior is shaped by how we interpret and process information.

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable behaviors and the role of learning through conditioning (classical, operant, or observational). Emotions and thoughts are less emphasized; the focus is on what can be measured.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and the drive toward self-actualization. Sees people as inherently good, with behavior guided by the need for meaning and fulfillment.

Biological Perspective

Examines behavior through brain structures, genetics, hormones, and neurotransmitters. Assumes that thoughts, feelings, and actions have a biological basis.

Socio-Cultural Perspective

Looks at how social and cultural factors—such as family, peers, traditions, and societal norms—shape behavior and thinking.

Evolutionary

Explains behavior in terms of adaptation and natural selection. Certain traits persist because they helped our ancestors survive or reproduce.

Positive Psychology

Focuses on strengths, virtues, happiness, and factors that help individuals and communities thrive. Rather than just treating illness, it emphasizes building well-being.

Scenario: A therapist works with a client who has difficulty maintaining relationships. In therapy, they explore how unresolved feelings from the client’s parents’ divorce when they were a child may still be influencing their trust in others. Question: Which psychological perspective focuses on how early childhood experiences and unconscious conflicts shape current behavior?

Psychodynamic Perspective

Scenario: A counselor helps a student identify and replace self-defeating thoughts like “I’m not smart enough” with more positive, realistic ones to improve their academic performance. Question: Which perspective examines how thinking patterns influence behavior and emotions?

Cognitive Perspective

Scenario: A fitness coach uses a reward system where clients earn points for each workout completed, which they can trade in for prizes. Question: Which perspective focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through rewards and punishments?

Behavioral Perspective

Scenario: A life coach works with a client to help them discover their personal passions and create a plan to achieve a greater sense of life purpose. Question: Which perspective emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-actualization?

Humanistic Perspective

Scenario: A neuroscientist investigates whether changes in brain chemistry contribute to anxiety disorders. Question: Which perspective studies how brain structures, neurotransmitters, and genetics affect behavior?

Biological Perspective

Scenario: A researcher studies how cultural stigma around mental illness in some communities affects whether people seek therapy. Question: Which perspective examines how cultural norms and social environments influence behavior?

Socio-cultural Perspective

Scenario: A psychologist researches why humans tend to form strong pair bonds and care for their offspring. Question: Which perspective explains behavior in terms of adaptation and survival advantages?

Evolutionary Perspective

Scenario: A school introduces daily gratitude exercises to improve students’ happiness and resilience. Question: Which perspective focuses on strengths, virtues, and factors that help people thrive?

Positive Perspective