Geographic and Regional Terms, Causes of Independence, Key Figures, Events & Documents, Social Groups and Effects

IB History of the Americas Unit 1 Part II

British North America

the British territories in North America after the American Revolution, primarily the regions that eventually became Canada. It encompassed the colonies and territories that remained under British control after the United States gained independence in 1783, and it existed until the Confederation of Canada in 1867

Thirteen Colonies

the thirteen British colonies in North America that joined together and became the United States of America after adopting the Declaration of Independence in 1776

Latin America

he cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish and Portuguese

Spanish America

the Spanish-speaking territories and countries in the Americas, including Mexico, Central America (except Belize), South America (except Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana, and Suriname), and most of the West Indies, historically comprising the territories of the Spanish colonial empire

Gran Colombia

a short-lived state in South America, created in 1819 by Simón Bolívar, that encompassed the territories of present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Panama, and parts of northern Peru, western Guyana, and northwest Brazil. It aimed to unify Latin America

Viceroyalty of New Spain

the first of the four viceroyalties that Spain created to govern its conquered lands in the New World

Viceroyalty of Peru

large colonial district in South America that was controlled by the Spain Empire

Brazil (Portuguese America)

The only major Portuguese colony, where independence (1822) was relatively peaceful under Dom Pedro I. A good comparative case for Paper 3.

Haiti (Saint-Domingue)

France’s richest colony, producing sugar with enslaved labor. Its revolution (1791–1804) under Toussaint Louverture was the first successful slave revolt, influencing other independence movements.

Caribbean colonies

Colonies of various European powers (Spain, Britain, France, Netherlands). Important when analyzing the broader Atlantic Revolutions and the economic importance of slavery.

Political disenfranchisement

Colonists lacked full political rights; elites resented exclusion from high offices (esp. criollos in Spanish America).

Economic exploitation

Mercantilist policies restricted colonial trade to the mother country, fostering resentment.

Social inequality

Racial and class divisions (peninsulares, criollos, mestizos, enslaved Africans, indigenous peoples) shaped revolutionary movements.

Religious tensions

conflicts, disagreements, or hostility between different religious groups, often stemming from ideological differences, political power struggles, or competition for resources.

Enlightenment philosophy

Ideas of Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu emphasized natural rights, popular sovereignty, and liberty.

Colonial taxation

Stamp Act, Tea Act in North America; tribute and sales taxes in Spanish America provoked unrest.

American Revolutionary influence

The success of the U.S. Revolution inspired Latin American leaders to pursue independence.

Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon’s occupation of Spain and Portugal weakened imperial authority, giving colonies the opportunity to assert autonomy.

Peninsular War (Spain)

The French invasion (1808) and the abdication of Ferdinand VII created a legitimacy crisis, prompting juntas in the Americas.

George Washington

Commander of the Continental Army, later U.S. president; symbolizes republican leadership.

Thomas Jefferson

Principal author of the Declaration of Independence; influential Enlightenment thinker in practice.

Simón Bolívar

The “Liberator” of northern South America; key in independence of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia

José de San Martín

Leader of independence in southern South America (Argentina, Chile, Peru); collaborated with Bolívar.

Miguel Hidalgo

Mexican priest; issued the “Grito de Dolores” (1810), sparking Mexican independence.

Toussaint Louverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution, former enslaved man who defeated Napoleon’s forces.

Dom Pedro I

Declared Brazil’s independence (1822) and became its emperor, representing a conservative, monarchic independence.

Bernardo O’Higgins

Chilean independence leader, worked alongside San Martín

José María Morelos

Mexican priest who carried on Hidalgo’s struggle, advocating for racial equality

John Locke

English philosopher; ideas on natural rights and government by consent influenced revolutionaries.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

French philosopher; the concept of the “general will” shaped republican ideals.

King George III

British monarch during the American Revolution; seen as a symbol of tyranny.

King Ferdinand VII (Spain)

His abdication during Napoleon’s invasion destabilized Spanish America; later tried to reassert control.

Napoleon Bonaparte

His European wars destabilized Spain and Portugal, indirectly enabling independence movements.

James Monroe

U.S. president who issued the Monroe Doctrine (1823), signaling U.S. opposition to European recolonization.

American Revolution

The first major colonial independence movement in the Americas. Its success demonstrated that European empires could be defeated, inspiring later revolutions in Haiti and Latin America.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Drafted mainly by Jefferson, it embodied Enlightenment ideals of natural rights and popular sovereignty. Later independence leaders (e.g., Bolívar, Hidalgo) echoed its principles.

Haitian Revolution

A massive slave uprising in Saint-Domingue that overthrew French colonial rule. Its radical social equality terrified elites in Spanish America but inspired enslaved and free Black populations.

Mexican War of Independence

Began with Hidalgo’s Grito de Dolores and was later shaped by Morelos and conservative criollos. Shows the complex interplay of race, class, and religion in independence struggles.

South American wars of liberation

Led by Simón Bolívar in the north and José de San Martín in the south. Their campaigns liberated Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Chile, Peru, and Bolivia.

Brazilian independence (1822)

Achieved with relatively little bloodshed under Dom Pedro I. A unique case where monarchy, rather than revolution, facilitated independence.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

U.S. declaration opposing European recolonization in the Americas. While limited in power at first, it symbolized hemispheric solidarity.

Constitution of 1787 (U.S.)

Established a federal republic with checks and balances. Influenced constitutional experiments in Latin America, though often adapted to local conditions.

Congress of Angostura

Bolívar’s assembly in Venezuela that debated governance after independence; reflected tensions between centralism and federalism.

Congress of Tucumán

Argentine congress that declared independence from Spain, part of the broader southern independence struggle.

Battle of Ayacucho

Decisive victory in Peru by Bolívar’s forces, effectively ending Spanish rule in South America.

Battle of Yorktown

Final major battle of the American Revolution; British surrender paved the way for U.S. independence.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

Ended the American Revolution; Britain recognized U.S. independence. Served as a precedent for later treaties recognizing new Latin American states.

Continental Congress

The governing body of the Thirteen Colonies during the Revolution. Demonstrates how colonial elites built institutions of self-government..

Creoles

American-born descendants of Europeans. They led most independence movements in Spanish America, frustrated at exclusion from top offices.

Peninsulares

Europeans born in Spain. Held the highest colonial positions, making them targets of creole resentment.

Indigenous peoples

Varied roles: some joined independence movements, others supported royalists (hoping the crown would protect their rights). Often marginalized after independence.

Enslaved Africans

Their struggles were central in Haiti and present in Spanish and Portuguese America. Some were promised freedom in exchange for military service

Free people of color

Particularly influential in Haiti, where they played a key role in the revolution. Elsewhere, they sought expanded rights but faced persistent discrimination.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Indigenous descent. Often supported independence, but their social status remained ambiguous after independence.

Mulattoes

People of mixed European and African descent. In Saint-Domingue, they were leaders of early revolutionary demands for equality

Women in revolutionary movements

Figures like Manuela Sáenz (close ally of Bolívar) or female supporters in North America contributed as messengers, fundraisers, and sometimes fighters, though rights were rarely extended to them after independence.

Loyalists

Colonists in British North America who opposed independence; many emigrated to Canada or Britain. Illustrates internal divisions within revolutionary societies.

Patriots

Supporters of independence in the U.S. context; parallel groups existed in Latin America, though sometimes split by ideology (centralists vs. federalists).

Abolitionists

Advocated ending slavery. Their voices were strongest in Haiti and gradually influenced debates in the U.S. and Latin America, though slavery persisted in Brazil and parts of the Caribbean well after independence.