Unit 0 - AP Psychology

Psychology

Study of behavior and mental processes

Replicability

Ability to reproduce scientific results

Critical Thinking

Examining assumptions, biases, and evidence

Hindsight Bias

Belief in predicting outcomes after learning them

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to seek info aligning with beliefs

Belief Perseverance

Clutching to beliefs despite contrary evidence

Overconfidence

Being more certain than accurate in knowledge

Scientific Method

Process for evaluating ideas with observations

Peer Reviewers

Experts evaluating research articles

Theory

Explanation organizing observations and predicting events

Hypothesis

Testable prediction implied by a theory

Falsifiability

Idea that theories can be disproved by observation

Non Experimental Methods

Techniques like case studies and naturalistic observations

Experimental Methods

Involving manipulation of variables

Meta Analyses

Studying results of multiple studies for conclusions

Correlational Research

Describing relationships between variables

Correlation Coefficient

Measures strength of relationship between variables

Scatterplot

Graph showing relationship between two variables

Directionality Problem

Inability to determine cause and effect between variables

Third Variable Problem

Hidden variable impacting studied variables

Illusory Correlation

False belief in a relationship between variables

Random Sampling

Selecting a sample from a population randomly

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups randomly

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants unaware of their group assignment

Double-Blind Procedure

Both researchers and participants unaware of group assignments

Placebo

Inert treatment given to the control group

Placebo Effect

Behavior change due to expectations from an inert substance

Independent Variable

Manipulated variable in an experiment

Confounding Variable

Factors influencing study outcomes other than the IV

Social Desirability Bias

Subjects altering results to please researchers

Experimenter Bias

Researchers unintentionally skewing results to match beliefs

Dependent Variable

Measured outcome variable in an experiment

Operational Definition

Specifies procedures to manipulate IV and measure DV

Validity

Experiment testing what it's supposed to

Quantitative Research

Using numerical data to represent variables

Qualitative Research

Relies on narrative data, not numerical

APA Guidelines for Animal Research

Mandates humane care, healthy conditions, and minimal discomfort

Deception in Research

Temporary deception justifiable with thorough debriefing

Informed Consent

Subjects must agree to participate after being informed

Protection in Research

Ensuring protection from harm, discomfort, and confidentiality

Institutional Review Boards

Comprised of scientists, non-scientists, and community reps to screen ethical concerns

Descriptive Statistics

Measuring and describing characteristics of a study group

Histogram

Bar graph displaying frequency distribution

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, mode, median - describe distribution characteristics

Inferential Statistics

Data allowing generalization from sample to population

Case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

positively skewed distribution

A distribution where the scores pile up on the left side and taper off to the right.

negatively skewed distribution

A distribution in which most scores pile up at the high end of the scale.

bimodal distribution

a distribution with two modes

regression towards the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

Sample

A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.

population

a group of similar things that a scientist is interested in learning about

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

convenience sampling

using a sample of people who are readily available to participate

Generalizing

the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

structured interview

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

Likert scales

ordinal-level scales containing seven points on an agree or disagree continuum

peer review

a review by people with similar professional qualification

effect sizes

a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the extent of an experimental effect

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Confidentiality

Respecting the privacy of both parties and keeping details secret

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

sampling bias

A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.

Placebo Group

A control group of participants who believe they are receiving treatment, but who are only receiving a placebo.

Survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements.

Social Desirability Bias

bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

Self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

Informed assent

Participant's agreement to participate in the absence of full understanding and commonly applies to individuals who have not attained legal majority and/or capacity (under 18)

Confederates

in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. Human behavior evolved so the species would be better adapted to survive.

Biological Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

humanistic psychology

an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

psychodynamic/psychoanalytic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior

Sociocultural Psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning