Biochemical Concepts

Macromolecule

Large complex molecules necessary for life, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Monosaccharides

The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules like glucose and fructose.

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates made up of two monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds, examples include sucrose and lactose.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates formed by long chains of monosaccharides, serving as energy storage and structural roles.

Amino Acids

The building blocks of proteins, consisting of 20 distinct amino acids, each with unique side chains.

Peptide Bonds

Covalent bonds that link amino acids together during protein synthesis.

Primary Structure

The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure

Folding of the polypeptide chain into alpha helices and beta sheets due to hydrogen bonding.

Tertiary Structure

The overall 3D shape of a protein formed by interactions among R-groups.

Enzymes

Proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.

Lipids

A group of hydrophobic organic compounds, including fats, oils, and steroids, crucial for energy storage and cellular functions.

Phospholipids

Lipids that form cell membrane bilayers, consisting of two fatty acids and a phosphate group.

Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids, composed of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH.

Krebs Cycle

The cycle occurring in mitochondria that converts pyruvate into carbon dioxide and generates electron carriers.

Electron Transport Chain

A series of complexes in the mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons to generate ATP.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants use sunlight to synthesize food and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.

Feedback Mechanisms

Processes that maintain homeostasis through negative or positive feedback loops.

Hydrogen Bonding

Weak interactions between polar molecules, significant in maintaining the structure of water and biological macromolecules.

Specific Heat

The amount of heat required to change the temperature of a substance; water has a high specific heat.

Entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness in a system, which increases with energy transformations.

Exergonic Reactions

Reactions that release energy, characterized by a negative change in free energy.

Endergonic Reactions

Reactions that require energy input, characterized by a positive change in free energy.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate; the primary energy currency of the cell, involved in biochemical processes.

Coupled Reactions

Reactions where energy from an exergonic reaction drives an endergonic reaction, maintaining cellular processes.

Immune System

The body's defense mechanism against pathogens, involving innate and adaptive immunity.

Antigen-Antibody Interaction

The specific binding of antibodies to antigens, marking them for destruction.

Vaccination

Introduction of an attenuated or inactive pathogen to elicit an immune response for long-term immunity.

Genetic Engineering

The manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology, such as CRISPR-Cas9.

Cell Signaling

The process by which cells communicate with each other through signaling molecules.