Aggression (complete)

what are the 4 types of aggression?

• active = direct, overt and obvious aggressive behaviour

• passive = indirectly expressing negative feelings, not openly addressing the issue

• verbal

• physical

define aggression.

behaviour that is INTENDED to cause harm, through verbal or physical acts

what are the social psychological explanations for aggression?

• SLT

• frustration-aggression hypothesis

• deindividuation

What does SLT state about aggression?

aggression is a learned response from observation and imitation of role models

• Individuals must internalise the aggressive role model - adopt the behaviour of the person they are observing

• people also learn the consequences of aggressive behaviour

How may vicarious reinforcement be applied to aggressive behaviour?

The process of modelling - imitation of the behaviour of the role model

more likely if they observe the role model being rewarded for their aggressive behaviour.

What are the mediational processes?

come between observation and imitation

1. attention = person has to pay attention to role model to imitate behaviour

2. retention = aggressive behaviour must be remembered

3. reproduction = observer has to be able to replicate the behaviour

4. motivation = observer must want to replicate the aggressive behaviour.

may also involve identification

what is self-efficacy?

the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal.

an individual’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive will develop with each successful outcome.

What is the supporting evidence for SLT to explain aggression?

Bandura et al 1961

• 72 children half girls and boys (3 groups of 24)

• aggression higher in group that saw the aggressive role model

• boys in general were more aggressive and more likely to use physical aggression.

• girls = verbal aggression

• correlation coefficient of 0.89

• 70% of control showed no aggression

what are 4 weaknesses with the supporting evidence for SLT in aggression?

• lab experiment = may not be representative of real world experience

• short term experiment, didn’t not know if aggression persisted after observation

• does not explain gender difference - as it neglects the role of biology, eg testosterone may have a role in why males were more aggressive

• sample bias of young impressionable children ages 3-5 so results may not be applicable to all (lacks population validity)

  • cumberbatch = children that had not seen bobo doll before were 5x more aggressive

What is the contradicting evidence for SLT as an explanation of aggression?

neglecting the nature side of the debate =

biological explanations

• brunner - MAOA

• caspi - MAOA

• coccaro - twins

What are the practical applications of SLT in explaining aggression?

parenting programmes developed to reduce aggression in children using knowledge around SLT

• parents show prosocial behaviours to be modelled rather than aggressive behaviour

• also regulating exposure to aggressive media

Who put forward the frustration aggression hypothesis?

Dollard et al 1939

What is frustration?

feeling, when working towards a goal, that there are barriers in the way (real or imagined) that prevent the goal from being achieved

it is unpleasant and needs relief (aggression)

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

attempt to achieve goal blocked → frustration → aggressive drive → aggressive behaviour

• based on the freudian term ‘catharsis’ - releasing and gaining relief from strong repressed emotions

• behaving aggressively is cathartic as frustration is satisfied, reducing drive and making further aggression less likely

What 2 factors increasing the likelihood of aggression (FAH)?

Why may aggression not be expressed directly?

aggression may be more likely if

• proximity to goal

• whether aggression will remove the barrier that is causing frustration

aggression may be displaced to an alternative If the cause of frustration is:

• abstract

• too powerful and may lead to punishment

What is the supporting research for the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

buss 1963

• examined if different types of frustration (task failure, interference with winning money and interference with getting a better grade) led to aggressive behaviour

• measured by intensity of electric shock given to confederate

  • all types of frustration led to aggression and all were higher that control who experienced no frustration

What is the contradictory evidence against the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

bushman 2002

PPTs made angry by a confederate criticising an essay they had written

• PPTs then hit a punching bag while thinking of the confederate that had criticised them

• they reported increased levels of anger and delivered more loud blasts of noise to the confederate than the control group who did not get to punch the bag

doing nothing at all when frustrated was more effective than venting anger (catharsis), which increased/prolonged the aggression levels

What are the other explanations for the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Berkowitz - frustration may not always lead to aggression

‘negative effect theory’ was a reformulation of the hypothesis

• theory states that aggression can be triggered by any negative feeling eg jealousy

• frustration can also lead to a range of responses - eg getting a low grade may lead to anxiety and despair

• shows that the frustration-aggression hypothesis is too simplistic and has limited ability to explain aggression

What are the practical applications of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

• understanding that frustration can be a trigger/aggressive behaviour can be cathartic has helped psychologist provide interventions to help people

• eg anger rooms where people can pay to act aggressively (smash and break things) in a safe place

• shows that the hypothesis has real world uses

What are the issues and debates of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Psychic determinism

• suggests that people are aggressive as it is cathartic (psychodynamic concept) therefore individuals have no power to control their aggression as it is a relief from frustration

• would have implications for the legal system - unable to control their actions as it was a normal way to relieve aggression

What are individuated and deindividuated states?

individ. = behaviour is rational and conforms to social norms

deindivid. = behaviours are emotional, impulsive and against social norms.

What factors may lead to a deindividuated state?

• uniform or masks

• influence of substances

• darkness

• group size

eg zimbardo’s study where he increased levels of deindividuation (uniforms, sunglasses, prisoners numbered)

Explain anonymity in relation to deindividuation and who investigated it….

prentice-Dunn and rogers (1982)

• aggression is more likely to happen when an individual is part of a group or crowd due to anonymity

• explained this process as mediated by self-awareness

• when a person is not in a crowd their self-awareness regulates their behaviour (remaining autonomous)

what are the two ways being in a crowd impacts self awareness (investigated by prentice-dunn and Rogers 1982)

decreased public self-awareness

• lowered inhibition = less concerned about the impression they present to others

• feel less accountable for their actions

decreased private self-awareness

• less concern for own internal standards ie. they forget themselves

• less self-critical, thoughtful and evaluative

• reliance on others for cues as to how to behave

What is the supporting evidence for deindividuation?

Douglas and Mcgarty 2001

• investigated aggression in chatrooms/instant messaging.

• most aggressive messages from those with hidden identity

• suggests the link between anonymity, deindividuation

• aggression has greater relevance today due to increased social media use

What is the contradictory evidence against deindividuation?

Johnson and Downing (1979) - study similar to Milgram

• found if people were wearing a kkk costume they were more aggressive than if wearing a nurses costume.

• nurses were also more compassionate to their ‘victim’

shows that deindividuation can lead to aggression or pro-social behaviour.

• contextual cues and norms determine which is most likely to occur

What is a weakness of the social-psychological explanations?

fails to acknowledge the role of biology in causing aggressive behaviour eg. neural and hormonal mechanisms and genetic factors. means it is not a complete explanation

What are the practical applications of deindividuation as an explanation for aggression?

if aggression is more likely to occur in darkness, in conditions of anonymity or in crowds:

• areas should be well lit

• CCTV should be used

• police should monitor large groups of people

leads to people being more accountable for their actions

what are the issues and debates about deindividuation as an explanation for aggression?

free will and determinism =

• people may be less accountable for their actions if they were in darkness, in large groups etc

• questions if people have free will over their actions

What is the MAOA gene?

genes that code for making the enzyme monoamine oxidase A

• This breaks down important neurotransmitters in the brain such as dopamine or serotonin so they can be reabsorbed.

• an imbalance of MAOA can impact serotonin levels, and low levels of serotonin have been associated with aggression,

  • this is serotonin has a inhibitor effect so prevents the likelihood of aggressive behaviour

• variants such as MAOA-L are associated with low levels of serotonin therefore with aggression.

What is the contradictory evidence against the MAOA gene?

Caspi et al 2002

• studied 1037 children (442 boys) in New Zealand for 25 years, birth → adulthood = longitudinal study

• they only found high aggression in those with a deficient MAOA gene if they had also suffered abuse as children

• suggests there is an interaction between the genetics and the environment.

what is the supporting evidence for the role of the MAOA gene in aggression?

Brunner et al 1993

• studied 5 generations of an extremely aggressive Dutch family

• one had tried to rape his sister and another had tried to run his boss down in a car

• found that all members of the family carried the MAOA gene deficiency

• suggests an association with aggression

however

• issues with case studies

• issues with separating the impacts of environment and genetics

Coccaro et al 1997 - investigated levels of aggression in twins

physical assault: MZ = 50% DZ = 19%

verbal aggression: MZ = 28%. DZ = 7%

however

• twin studies have the issues of cause and effect

• despite sharing genotypes, they also often share environments and upbringings

• therefore difficult to establish real causes of aggression (nature, nurture or an interaction between the two)

What is an issue with generalising between studies in aggression?

aggression is measured in different ways depending on how behavioural categories are operationalised.

what are the issues and debates around genetic causes of aggression?

Nature-nurture debate →

• implications in underestimating the role of the ppts environment

free will and determinism debate →

• implications for the legal system. if certain genetics predispose people to violent behaviour hard to hold responsibility

• some legal experts argue that people that possess a genetic predisposition to violence, may not be able to exercise their free will

• suggests we would have to revise moral and legal responsibility

• however has benefits in identifying potential future offenders, and provide intervention

What three neural and hormonal mechanisms can be used to explain aggression?

1. brain structures - limbic system

2. neurotransmitters - serotonin

3. hormones - testosterone

What is the role of the limbic system in aggressive behaviour?

• group of structures beneath the cerebral cortex such as the amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus

• plays a key role in how an organism responds to it’s environment

• believed to be the key factor in if we respond aggressively or not to an external stimulus

  • The amygdala is most related to aggression - responsible for attaching emotional significance to sensory information and perceiving threats.

  • also notifies the hypothalamus of a threat so the body can react in an appropriate way eg F or F

What are the strengths of the role of the limbic system in aggression?

zagrodzka et al 1998

• damage to the central nucleus of the amygdala in cats lead to ‘predator-like attacks’

• similar results were found in rats and hamsters (would mean this is relative to brain structure)

• however hard to generalise from animals - brain structure and function differ, as well as triggers for aggression

Gospic et al 2011

• used the ‘ultimatum game’ method

• FRMI found more activity in the amygdala when rejecting unfair offers (aggressive reaction to social provocation)

• shows relation between the amygdala and aggression

What is 1 weakness of the limbic system’s role in aggression?

contradictory evidence →

• research suggests that the amygdala does not work alone in determining aggression

• attributing aggression to a specific part of the brain may be too simplistic

eg. Phineas gage 1948

• after his accident transformed, becoming more irritable, hostile, impulsive - implementing the role of the frontal cortex in mood regulation rather than limbic system

• however over time after the accident his changes in personality decreased suggesting most impacts were temporary and/or less impactful in his later years

What is the role of serotonin in aggression?

thought to reduce aggressive behaviour by inhibiting responses to emotional stimuli that may otherwise lead to aggression

• low levels are linked to increased aggression in animals and humans

• fluctuations can occur is a person hasn’t eaten or is stressed - irritability

• low levels have also been shown to cause implications in communications within the limbic system

  • explains why low levels make coordination of responses hard

What is the supporting evidence for the role of serotonin in aggression?

Mann et al 1990

• gave 35 healthy ppts a drug known to lower serotonin (dexfenfluramine)

• found that this was associated with an increase in hostility and aggression scores on a questionnaire

• however only in males and not in female

  • does not explain this gender difference

What is the role of testosterone in aggression?

male sex hormone produced in Leydig cells in the testes and ovaries, and by neuroendocrine cells in the brain

• prenatally influenced development of the limbic system and masculinisation of the brain

• at the time of birth sensitises neural circuits that are associated with aggression.

• Brain scans in males show that testosterone activates the amygdala, enhancing emotional activity.

What is the supporting evidence for the role of testosterone in aggression?

Wagner et al 1979

• castrated male mice to reduce testosterone levels and found decreased aggression

• if mouse (male or female) is then given testosterone, aggression levels are restored to pre-castration (subtraction replacement paradigm)

• shows its role in aggression

What is the contradicting evidence in the role of testosterone in aggression?

mcburnett et al 2000

• The idea that any single hormone causes aggression = is too simplistic

• found boys with low levels of cortisol (stress hormone) began antisocial acts at younger ages and showed 3x number of aggressive symptoms than those with higher levels

suggests that other hormones also play a role too

incomplete explanation for aggression

What are 2 general strengths and weaknesses of the neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

strengths

1. practical applications = knowledge of neural/hormonal mechanisms allows therapies to be developed to reduce aggression, eg medication

2. mostly based on empirical testable evidence (in a controlled setting) so increases the reliability and replicability of results

weaknesses

1. most research is correlational = means there is little proof of cause and effect so conclusions that can be drawn are limited

2. I&D = gender bias, determinism, reductionism, nature nurture

What is ethology?

study of animal behaviour in natural settings (from a biological perspective)

What are the basic assumptions of the ethological approach?

• aggression is an instinct that occurs in all

  members of the species without the need for learning (genetically determined, innate and adaptive)

• ethologists study aggression in non-humans to then extrapolate to humans

(Konrad Lorenz supported this approach)

Why are animals aggressive to each other?

• acquire/defend resources; offspring, mates, territory etc

• establish status and dominance

what are IRMs

innate releasing mechanisms

• Hard-wired brain networks that respond to specific stimuli in the environment by initiating an FAP (an adaptive sequence of behaviours)

what is the difference between IRMs and FAPs

the IRM is the recognition of the stimuli and the coordination of the response

the FAP is the behavioural response to the stimuli

what is mnemonic to remember of FAPs

RUBSUS

• Response to identifiable stimulus

• Unaffected by learning

• Ballistic, once triggered continue to completion

• Single purpose

• Universal, found in all members of species

• Stereotyped, relatively unchanging

Who investigated FAPs?

Tinbergen 1951 - 3 spined sticklebacks

in mating season males develop red spot on the underbelly, if a males see this spot on others the IRM and FAPs are initiated (red sport is the IRM trigger) causing it to attack

• presented males with series of wooden models of different shapes

• regardless of shape if it had a red spot the stickleback would attack

• aggressive FAPs were always the same (stereotyped)

• once triggered FAPs would continue until completion

What are strengths (1) of the ethological approach to aggression?

supporting evidence - Sackett 1996

• researched monkeys in isolation and provided them with pictures of monkeys in threatening positions

• as babies matured they responded to the threatening stimuli

• shows there is an IRM for detecting threats, which can lead to aggressive behaviour

• this idea is also supported by biological explanations for aggression

What are 4 weaknesses of the ethological explanations for aggression?

cultural differences - Nisbett 1993

• in USA murders triggered by arguments are more common in white males in southern states than northern due to a ‘culture of honour’

• suggests aggression is not universal and can be a learned norm

individual differences

• also can be argued that certain people respond differently in the same situations so FAPs are not stereotyped in humans (eg some people may respond differently based on trauma responses etc)

I&D

• free will/determinism = implied there is no control over aggression (implications for the legal system

• reductionism = complex behaviours can’t be simplified to stereotyped patterns of response

use of animals

• although monkeys more genetically similar to humans that stickleback still hard to extrapolate with different triggers for aggression etc.

What are the assumptions of the evolutionary explanations for aggression in humans?

people are aggressive today as aggression is innate and was adaptive for our ancestors

aggression was useful for:

ensuring the survival of genes

ensuring access to mates (reproduction)

ensuring status and dominance

acquiring and defending resources

why is aggression used in relationships in relation to innate responses?

aggression aimed at deterring a partner from being unfaithful

• it is an innate and adaptive response to reducing the likelihood of the partner committing infidelity (being unfaithful to your partner)

• may be due to jealousy - when a relationship is threatened by a real or imagined rival

what are infidelity and jealousy?

infidelity = being unfaithful to your partner

jealousy = emotion experienced when a relationship is threatened by a real or imagined rival

Who investigated innate/evolutionary aggression in relationships?

buss 1992

gave a questionnaire to male and female students asking them to imagine a person with whom they are/have been emotionally involved had became interested in someone else.

what would upset them more; an emotional attachment or sexual intercourse with them

• males are significantly more concerned with sexual infidelity

• females are significantly more concerned with emotional infidelity

what are the differences between males and females around infidelity?

men fear sexual infidelity most (risk of paternal insecurity

could lead to cuckolding - investing effort and resources into another man’s offspring

must ensure partner is faithful:

• physical aggression can prevent unfaithfulness

• aggressive retention strategies prevent other males from getting access to the females eg.s include

  • direct guarding (checking behaviours)

  • negative inducements (threats to prevent leaving/disloyalty)

women fear emotional infidelity most

• means that the man will not be committed to them

• evolutionary = women would have needed a man in their lives to help them raise a child

• not always physical aggression

what are 2 strengths of evolutionary explanations for aggression?

Sadalla et al 1987

• women showed films of two males interacting, they were more sexually attracted to the male who was showing more aggressive/dominant behaviour

• shows that aggression can increase the chances of reproductive success

• however aggressive males were not always liked, showing mate preference is based not only on survival

Practical applications - Wilson et al 1995

• 72% of women who reported their partner using guarding when on experiencing physical violence

• means friends and family members can be alerted to what behaviours can predict violence in the future

• eg clare’s law - means police can disclose information to victims and potential victims about their ex/partners previous abuse or violent behaviour

what are 3 weaknesses of the evolutionary explanations for aggression?

contradictory evidence - cultural differences

• aggression towards women varies across culture

  • yanomamo (s America) = high

  • aka (Africa) = low

• suggests there are other factors involved than universal innate evolutionary principles (such as learning - SLT)

determinism

• suggests aggression in relationships is out of personal control as it is an innate instinct

• consequences for the legal system and makes research socially sensitive

general issues with evolutionary theories

• they are speculative

• cannot be tested with experimentation and rely on observation of modern behaviour

• may not be wrong but lacks empirical support

What are the two explanations for institutional aggression?

• dispositional explanation - Irwin & Cressey 1962

• situational explanation

who developed the dispositional explanation for institutional aggression?

What is the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression?

importation model - developed by Irwin and Cressey 1962

• aggression is the result of individual characteristics and social histories of prisoners

• willingness to use violence in settling disputes between prisoners reflects life before imprisonment

• aggression is more likely if the prisoner previously lived in a culture where aggression was valued and reinforced

• inmates predisposed to violence are likely to use it in any setting.

According to the importation model when may aggression to be more likely?

a history of →

• substance abuse

• poor employment/education

• gang membership

• race and age (eg younger are more aggressive)

What is the situational explanation for institutional aggression?

institutional aggression arises from prison environment

deprivation model

• deprivation = increased stress

• aggressive behaviour can release stress and obtain desired resources

• aggression can be a way of them gaining control over the environment and what they are deprived of; security, independence, relationships, freedom etc

management model

• poor leadership, high staff turnover and lack of discipline lead to aggression

• prisoners are less aggressive when there is effective management and prisoners believe in the programmes that are offered to them.

What are 3 strengths for the explanations for institutional aggression?

SE dispositional - Delisi et al 2011

• studies 813 juvenile delinquents in institutions in California

• most had dealt with childhood trauma, substance abuse and violence

• found these inmates more likely to engage in sexual misconduct and violence compared to those without these histories.

• shows explanation is valuable about aggression in prisons

SE situational - cunning et al 2010

• analysed 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons and found motivations included arguments over drug access, homosexual relations and personal possessions

• gives validity to the explanation

practical applications

• understanding cause of aggression in prisons can provide methods in reducing it

• eg investing government funding into high-quality prison staff to reduce deprivation

• shows that there are real-world uses

What is the contradictory evidence for the explanations for institutional aggression?

• use evidence for either of the explanations to contradict the other (cunning/Delisi)

• or can use evidence supporting other explanations (genetics/SLT etc)

• these may impact free will and determinism as a inmates history or environment means they act in a certain way

what are the practical applications for the 2 explanations for institutional aggression?

How are video games a media influence for aggression?

computer games - Anderson et al 2010

• meta-analysis of 136 studies including experimental, correlational and longitudinal studies

• found exposure to violent computer games was associated with an increase in aggressive behaviour, thoughts and feelings

• both in males and females across all cultures

How can SLT explain media influences?

• individuals can identify with video game characters as they want to be like or feel similar to them

• observe the aggressive behaviour of the characters and the game and imitate it

• Characters may receive rewards for their behaviour (eg. awards or points), vicarious reinforcement, creating an association between awards and aggression

What are the 3 possible mechanisms for the effects of computer games on aggression?

1. desensitisation

2. disinhibition

3. cognitive priming

What is desensitisation?

witnessing violent actions for the first time = sympathetic arousal associated with feelings of anxiety (eg raised HR)

repeated exposure to violence (though games) reduced levels of sympathetic arousal each time = become habituated to the violence.

• reduced emotional and physiological reactions to aggression

What is disinhibition?

normally aggression is inhibited (stopped) as it is viewed as antisocial/harmful

exposure to this media lowers inhibition and restraint (behave in a way they normally wouldn’t)

aggressive behaviour is made to appear socially acceptable in games and the violence is rewarded

What is cognitive priming?

repeated viewing of aggressive media can provide people with a ‘script’ for how situations play out (priming)

becomes stored in people’s memory as part of their schema which can be activated with the appropriate cues

aggression is more likely in players who are ‘primed and ready’ for aggressive situations

What 3 researchers found supporting evidence for the effects of video games on aggression levels?

krane et al 2011

Berkowitz & Alioto 1973

Fischer & Greitemeyer 2006

what is the supporting evidence for desensitisation?

Krahe et al 2011

• showed ppts violent film clips while measuring physiological arousal

• ppt who were habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal

• lower arousal was correlated with aggression levels in a noise blast task

What is the supporting evidence for disinhibition?

Berkowitz & alioto 1973

• ppt who saw a film depicting aggression as a way of getting revenge gave more (fake) electric shocks of a longer duration to confederate

• suggests media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it appears justified

what is the supporting evidence for cognitive priming?

fischer & greitemeyer 2006

• Male PPTs listened to songs with derogatory and aggressive lyrics about women

• ppts recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively to a female confederate, than ppts who listened to neutral lyrics

What are 3 weaknesses for media influences?

contradictory evidence - Tear and Neilsen 2014

• 120 undergraduate students played violent, ultra-violent, violent or and non-violent video games and were assessed for prosocial behaviour (how much they donated to charity)

• PPTs responded in similar ways regardless of the type of game played

• suggests that effects are far less than initially thought

Individual differences

• mechanisms do not consider individual differences in susceptibility to aggression.

• could be that those who play video games and are aggressive also have the faulty MAOA gene

• violent video games may not have the same influence on everyone

Reductionism

• APA (American psychological association) 2020 commented that attributing violence to just video games is too simplistic

• violence is complex with many factors.

What are the other explanations for media influences?

What are the practical applications of research into media influences in aggression?

knowledge of potential negative impacts on individuals has led to the development of age restrictions. eg doom is 18+