Edexcel IGCSE Divided Union: Civil Rights in the USA, 1945-74

Causes of the Red Scare

Cause One: People in America were ideologically opposed communism because they felt it went against the ideas of liberty and they felt that it would threaten their way of life.

Cause Two: Russia developed their first atom bomb in 1949, putting them on a more level footing with the US.

Cause Three: China became communist in 1949.

Hiss and Rosenberg Cases

1950: The Alger Hiss Trial - Alger Hiss was

was a member of the State department and an important adviser to Roosevelt during WW2. Then Richard Nixon charged with being a communist. He was sent to prison for 5 years.

1950-53: The Rosenbergs - Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of giving atomic secrets to the Soviet Union. Eventually both executed on the 19th of June 1953.

HUAC and the Hollywood Ten

The House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated the film industry, education and the government to find out if there were any communists.

1947: HUAC investigated "The Hollywood Ten" - HUAC investigated the film industry to see if they were being used to send communist messages. Ten writers and directors were sacked and sent to prison for 1 year.

(example: Dalton Trumbo was one of the Hollywood ten imprisoned and blacklisted. He continued to write in secret throughout the 1950s under false names and won Oscars. When the film Spartacus was released in 1960, he was openly acknowledged as a writer, and broke free from the blacklist.)

Why did McCarthy have significant support during the Red Scare?

- Joseph McCarthy was a very ambitious Republican politician. He was Chairman of HUAC and a lot of power and influence in Washington.

- He claimed he had a list of people who were communists. 205 people who worked in the government were on the list. This terrified Americans who since 1949 were in fear of communists trying to bring about the downfall of the US way in life.

- He appeared on radio and TV - he was a strong and convincing speaker. He was able to play on the fear within America to convince people that he was telling the truth.

- Politicians often didn't like him but were too afraid to speak out against him as they were scared of being themselves labelled as communists.

Why did McCarthy lose support by the end of 1954

- The Tydings Committee judged his evidence to be very weak. 3 members of the Committee signed a statement in June 1950 calling his claims a 'hoax'.

- McCarthy's evidence of communist spies was often faked. (Photo showing Senator Tydings with a communist leader was forged).

- His televised hearings in 1953 showed him to be an aggressive bully. (On TV he attacked US war hero, General Zwicker).

- In 1953, Eisenhower moved him to a committee where it was hoped he would have less influence.

- In December 1954, the Senate voted to stop McCarthy by 67 votes to 22.

Effects of McCarthyism on the US

- Many people lost their jobs.

- 25 US states introduced anti-communist laws.

- The Communist Party was banned in 1954.

- 400 people were sent to prison.

- Many politicians avoided socialist policies for fear of being labelled 'un-American'.

- America's reputation of being "the land of the free" was severely damaged.

Causes of Brown vs. Topeka (1954)

Linda Brown wanted to attend her local school but was not allowed to because it was a whites-only school.

As a result, Oliver Brown, her father, and the NAACP took the case to the Supreme Court. School segregation broke the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson ruling that facilities for blacks could be 'separate but equal'.

What was the effect of Brown vs. Topeka on the US?

- In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in schools was illegal, that all schools should be integrated.

- It showed that the Supreme Court could be used to help black people gain equal rights, to encourage desegregation in other areas.

- However, many of the southern states simply ignored the ruling and schools remained segregated because there was no deadline given for desegregation.

What was the significance of Emmett Till's death (1955)?

He was brutally tortured and murdered while visiting relatives in Mississippi.

He was so badly beaten, that his mother did not recognise him when his body was returned to Chicago.

His mother left his coffin open so people could see what was done to her son.

White Americans in the North were shocked about the murder, and even more when the accused were found 'not guilty' by an all-male, white jury.

African-Americans became more motivated to join civil rights protests.

Till's murder acted as a catalyst for the civil rights movement.

Causes of the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)

- In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white man and was arrested due to Alabama State Law.

- As a result, the MIA (Montgomery Improvement Association) effectively organised a mass boycott of buses by the black community that lasted for 13 months.

- Consequently, bus companies lost too much money as over 70% of bus users were black.

- 1956 - the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on buses was illegal.

What was the effects of the Montgomery Bus Boycott

- It represented another victory against Jim Crowism.

- It was the first instance of mass, non-violent protest.

- It would characterise the Civil Rights Movement for much of the 1960s.

- It saw the emergence of Martin Luther King as the most important leader of the Civil Rights Movement.

- It resulted in the 1956 Supreme Court ruling that bus segregation was illegal.

The causes of Little Rock (1957)

- The desegregation of schools under Brown vs. Topeka ruling did not set a deadline so many southern schools ignored the ruling.

- As a result, the NAACP organised for 9 black students to test desegregation by trying to join Little Rock high school in September 1957.

- This led to, Governor Faubus preventing the students from entering with troops.

- Consequently, Faubus was forced to remove the troops, however they were replaced by a violent mob of about 1000 white people.

- Eisenhower then sent in federal troops to protect students.

- Faubus was so against integration that he closed down all schools in Little Rock (1958).

- A year later, the Supreme Court ordered him to re-open them and federal troops stayed to protect them.

The effects of Little Rock

- It showed that the President was willing to get involved and support black Americans.

- World-wide publicity for the Civil Rights Campaign and a lot of sympathy for the black students.

- The Supreme Court got involved again and forced Faubus to re-open schools.

What was the impact of the Civil Rights Act (1957)

- Eisenhower introduced the first Civil Rights Act since 1875.

- It set up a commission to prosecute anybody who tried to deny American citizens of their rights.

- This act had little immediate impact, however demonstrated that Congress was prepared to do something.

Why did the KKK revive in the 1950s?

- Brown vs. Topeka started to force integration, but made white southerners more determined to maintain segregation.

- A WCC (White Citizens Council) was set up in Indinola, Mississippi to protest and petition state authorities.

- Many WCC members joined the KKK, with branches appearing all over the South and membership increasing significantly.

What were the Freedom Riders?

1961: White and black protestors rode buses across states to draw attention to the fact that the southern states were ignoring the laws that were said interstate buses and the bus station should no longer be segregated. They faced violence and some were arrested.

An example would be that one bus was fire-bombed by the KKK in Anniston, Alabama in May 1961. As protestors attempted to exit the burning bus , were greeted by white supremacists with bricks and baseball bats. The level of violence gained nationwide publicity.

What was the impact of sit-ins?

1960: Black students 'sat in' whites only cafés. The violence against these peaceful protestors was seen on TV and helped to increase support for Civil Rights.

It led to the formation of the SNCC (Student Non-violent Co-ordinating Committee).

It resulted in the desegregation of public facilities in over 320+ cities.

What was the Meredith case (1962)?

James Meredith applied to go the college of 'Ole Miss in Mississippi and was accepted. However, once he was revealed to be black the college rejected him. He and the NAACP took the case to the Supreme Court an won.

The college had to accept him.

The event sparked riots in the college town and President Kennedy was forced to intervene to protect Meredith.

Why was Martin Luther King important?

- King's beliefs in non-violence, Christianity and co-operation with politicians to change the law appealed to both black and whites in a largely Christian, law abiding society.

- His methods of non-violent, mass civil disobedience gained a lot of publicity in the face of police brutality, which resulted in nationwide sympathy for the movement.

- His talent as a powerful orator and gained the movement worldwide attention and sympathy for the movement.

- He helped found the SCLC (Student Christian Leadership Committee) which worked with other civil rights groups such as the NAACP to organise mass protests and campaigns.

The Birmingham Peace March of 1963

In April 1963, Birmingham decided to close all of its public facilities in order to avoid desegregation. The peaceful protestors, including children, were attacked by by police dogs and fire hoses under the orders of the police chief at the time. Horrific images of non-violent protestors being attacked by dogs and screaming in agony while water-hosed were broadcast on TV. These images led President Kennedy to give a speech on TV in June 1963 where he declared that the civil rights movement a 'moral issue' that needed to be resolved.

The Washington Peace March of 1963

In August 1963, more than 250,000 people, including 60,000 whites marched to demand for civil rights for all. Shortly after Birmingham, Kennedy drew up the 1964 Civil Rights Act which promised an end to legal discrimination of any race.

Why was the Civil Rights Act of 1964 passed?

- The inspirational leadership of Martin Luther King characterised the movement and encouraged others to use the same methods.

- The work of the NAACP and non-violent protests inspired by King led to federal government intervention to help protect the civil rights of black Americans.

Why did MLK's campaign change by the late 1960s?

- He bagan to concentrate on trying to improve socio-economic conditions, focusing more on the northern cities than before.

- He opposed the Vietnam War because it cost so much money, money he thought could be spent on black people, this lost him support of some people.

- However, people in the North thought MLK did not understand their problems and were reluctant to follow him.

- As a result of all this, MLK became far less influential after 1965.

The effect of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

- This legislation marked the highpoint of the civil rights movement as it signalled the end of the Jim Crow laws.

- Segregation in education and public places was made illegal.

- An Equal Opportunities Commission was set up to investigate discrimination in the workplace.

Why was the Voting Acts Right of 1965 passed?

- In the South blacks were required to pass a literacy test before registering to vote (many blacks could not pass this test due to previous education discrimination or were simply obstructed from registering in other ways.

- As a result, the SNCC launched the 'Mississippi Freedom Summer' campaign which saw students help blacks to pass the literacy test.

- Consequently, faced with this campaigning, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act which prohibited racial discrimination in voting. By 1968 a million more black voters registered to vote.

What do we mean by Black Power?

- Blacks should take more responsibility, power and control in their own communities. They should not rely on white to give them rights, but take control themselves.

- A rejection of the non-violent tactics of the main Civil Rights Movement.

- More focus on social and economic issues rather than political issues.

- Some people believed in separatism, the idea that blacks should set up their own state without any white people (different to segregation).

Why did the Black Power movement develop in the 1960s?

- Many in the North saw King as irrelevant, he had focused on ending segregation, however, segregation did not exist in the northern states.

- Many like Stokely Carmichael of the SNCC grew frustrated with non-violent campaigns, they felt as if it was humiliating that black people was not bringing enough change fast enough.

- As a result, this tension and frustration with the slow pace of change, there was 3 summers of rioting in major cities between 1965-68 with 130 deaths and $700 million worth of damage.

- Consequently, young North American blacks looked to more militant methods and the Black Power movement emerged.

Who was involved in the Black Power movement?

The Nation of Islam: A group of black Muslims, they wanted a more militant approach and a totally separate state for blacks in the USA.

Malcolm X: He did a lot to encourage blacks to take responsibility for themselves and to be proud of being black. At first he wanted nothing to do with white people after, he changed his views and then accepted that whites could play a useful role in helping blacks to achieve civil rights.

The Black Panthers: Huey Newton and Bobby Sceale set it up in 1966. Despite their efforts to improve socio-economic conditions, they were of great concern to the FBI. This was because the Panthers carried guns and used armed patrols to protect black people from police brutality.

Stokely Carmichael: Leader of the SNCC, which started off as a non-violent group, however, became more radical later on.

Why was the Civil Rights Movement so important?

It had major accomplishments:

- The end of segregation in public places.

- Education - high school and university - was fully integrated.

- By 1968, a million more blacks had registered to vote in elections.

- The first black mayor, Carl Stokes in Cleveland in 1968, was elected.

- Black Power coined slogans which helped raise esteem of black Americans. ('black is beautiful').

- Greater political power, social recognition and opportunities reflected in US culture.

However:

At least three quarters of the black population are are still worse off than whites and rates of unemployment are higher for blacks than whites. Blacks still tend to have lower educational standards and ghettos would remain in cities.

Why did protests movements start to grow?

- There was a generational gap: Older people, parents/teachers/politicians, remembered the hardships of the Great Depression and WW2. Teenagers had been brought up in the prosperous 1950s.

- Many students turned against their parents' comfortable lifestyles, they thought they were too conformist and materialistic.

What were the reasons for the student protest movement?

- The attitude of the 1950s carried into the 1960s, young people wanted freedom in everything they did, the music they listened to, the clothes they wore, the social life they led.

- The contraceptive pill allowed women more freedom over their sexual behaviour and let them choose when they wanted to have children.

- More and more better off young people went to college and had time to discuss political matters and take action against issues they found unacceptable.

- The Vietnam War angered lots of young people in America. They did not believe in the war was a just war and had seen pictures in the media of American atrocities towards the Vietnamese people.

How did the students protest?

- Groups formed like the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) set up by Tom Hayden to give students a greater say in the ways universities were run. They also wanted to help poorer people and protested against the Vietnam War.

- Anti-Vietnam War protests. These were probably the biggest and most important protests organised by students. For example, in 1969, 700,000 marched in Washington against the war. They burned their draft cards or, sometimes, the American flag.

- The worst of these took place at Kent State University in 1970, when 4 students were shot dead by police in a peaceful protest. Americans were horrified and 2 million students went on strike in protest.

- Others joined the 'Hippy' movement and decided to 'drop out' of society all together. Their slogan was "make love, not war". They refused to work and many took drugs, which frightened older people. Hippies contributed to advancing civil rights for African Americans and women, however, they had little impact on government, as most politicians viewed their way of life as corrupting.

Why was the Student Movement so important?

- The student protests helped to change government policy on Vietnam and made a withdrawal from Vietnam more likely.

- They provided lots of publicity for the racism in America and lots of white students made the civil rights movement stronger.

- They challenged the status quo, this was the first time that younger people had opposed the government and their parents en masse.

What were the reasons for the Women's Movement in the 1960s & 1970s?

- Many women began to react against 1950s ideas of women as wives and mothers. Many were influenced by the 'swinging sixties'.

- By now, women were better educated and wanted to use this education to pursue a career. They did not all want to devote their whole lives to their husband and family.

- Betty Friedan's book "The Feminine Mystique" was published in 1963; it said that married women should be able to have careers as well and that husbands and wives should have equal partnership. This inspired many women.

- The National Organisation of Women (NOW) was started in 1966 by Betty Friedan to help raise awareness of rights for women.

How did women protest?

Women wanted:

- Equal pay with men.

- Opportunities to get top jobs.

- Child care for working parents.

- Action against male sexism.

- They went on marches and organised petitions, appeals, to the Supreme Court, demonstrations, ...

Other women believed not wearing make-up was an act of protest against male supremacy. These women also burned their bras because they saw them as a symbol of male domination. However, these women often did more harm than good because they caused a distraction from key issues of equal pay and job opportunities.

Some women wanted to make abortion legal, they believed women should have the right to choose whether or not to have a baby.

Why was there opposition to the women's liberation movement?

- When NOW and other feminists began to campaign for the Equal Rights Act (ERA) and women like Phyllis Schally began a highly organised campaign against it called STOP ERA.

- STOP ERA claimed that the equal rights for women and men would mean the unravelling of traditional American society and actually mean less protection for women.

- The actions of STOP ERA meant that the ERA was never passed in the USA despite many states originally being in favour of the Act.

Why was the women's movement so important?

It was important and achieved a number of things:

- The Equal Pay Act (1963), that men and women should have the same pay for the same job.

- The Education Amendment Act (1972), girls could follow exactly the same curriculum in schools and boys.

- Roe vs. Wade (1973), the Supreme Court ruled that abortion was legal.

However, sexist attitudes towards women did not disappear and progress was often slow.

What was the reason for the Watergate Scandal?

The Watergate Scandal was caused by an attempt to bug the offices of the Democrat Party in the Watergate building in Washington. Five men were arrested in June 1972. The men were employed by CREEP, Committee to Re-Elect the President.

What was the Watergate Scandal?

- President Nixon stated that the White House was not involved in any of these activities, but at the same time authorised the payment of $460,000 to the five men.

- A Senate Committee was set up to investigate, then many of Nixon's closest advisers were forced to resign.

- It was then revealed that all conversations in the White House since 1971 had been recorded on tape. The Senate demanded all tapes, but Nixon refused to had them over.

- Some tapes were eventually handed over in November 1973, then the US public was shocked by the attitudes and language of Nixon. However, the tapes had been edited.

- Nixon finally handed over the unedited tapes only after a ruling from the Supreme Court, then an announcement by the House of Representatives that it was about to begin impeachment proceedings.

The tapes proved that Nixon had lied and had tried to prevent the investigation, but not that he had known about the original break in and bugging. Nixon resigned in August 1974 to avoid the disgrace of impeachment.

What were the effects of the Watergate Scandal?

- 31 of Nixon's advisers went to prison as a result of the investigation.

- The Republicans lost the next election.

- The American people a,d American press became far more distrusting of their politicians.

- Congress acted to reduce the powers of the president. Such as:

1. Consult Congress before sending US troops into action (War Powers Act 1973)

2. Stop using federal money for personal reasons (Ethics of Government Act 1978)

3. Congress also set limits on contributions to presidential campaign funds (Congressional Budget Act)

4. Allow private citizens access to any federal government files about them (Freedom of Information Act)