IB HL Psychology Paper 3 - Research Methods

Bias in Research

Research studies often fall prey to experimental bias, in which the results are not representative of what they are supposed to measure.  

Case Study

A research method that involves a detailed study of a single, unique individual, institution or event. Method triangulation is used. 

Correlation

Measures the relationship between 2 co-variables.

Covert Observation

A research method where researchers observe participants’ ongoing behaviour in a situation. Covert = Participants are unaware they are being studied.  

Cultural Validity

Whether the findings of research, that were originally generated in a single culture, are applicable to another culture.

Demand Characteristics (bias)

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.  

Determinist/Determinism

Proposes that all behaviour has a cause and is thus predictable. Free will is an illusion, and our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control.  

Dependent Variable

The variable that the researcher records or measures

Ecological Validity

The extent to which the task used in a research study is representative of real life

Ethical considerations

Conflict between the rights of the participant and the aims of the research, Ethics committee weigh up costs and benefits before approving a study. These include: 

• Protection from physical harm 

• Right to withdraw 

• Deception 

• Informed Consent 

• Anonymity 

• Confidentiality 

External validity

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to populations/ situations / settings/ contexts outside of the experiment. 

Field experiment

A natural setting, where the IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded.  

Generisability

The extent to which we can apply the findings of our research to the target population we are interested in

Hypothesis

A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.  

Internal validity

The degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors or variables. Examines whether the study, design, conduct and the analysis answer the research question without bias

Interview

A research method consisting of a series of questions asked face to face between an interviewer and interviewee

Independent variable

The variable that the researcher changes or manipulates

True experiment

A controlled, artificial setting, where the IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded

Natural experiment

The experimenter does not manipulate the IV as it is naturally occurring. ‘It’s already happening’ For example, testing students before and after university

Opportunity sample

People who are simply most available, the ones who are nearest or easiest to obtain

Operationalise

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Overt observation

A research method where researchers observe participants’ ongoing behaviour in a situation. Overt = Participants are aware of being studied.

Population validity

The extent to which the results can be generalised to groups of people other than the sample of participants used

Predictive validity

The likelihood that the results can predict the occurrence of a specified behaviour in the future

Qualitative data

Non-numerical data expressed in words e.g. extract from a diary

Quantitative data

Numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes

Quasi-experiment

IV is based on a pre-existing difference between people. Non one has manipulated this variable. It simply exists. No random allocation can occur. e.g. Gender, Culture

Random sample

Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

Reductionist / reductionism

When a complex phenomenon/behaviour is reduced into their most basic parts. The belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts

Reliability

A measure of consistency, to repeat research and find the same results

Sample

It is usually not possible to include all members of the population in the study, so a smaller group is selected – the sample

Social desirability bias

The tendency of research subjects to choose responses they believe are more socially desirable or acceptable rather than choosing responses that are reflective of their true thoughts or feelings

Stratified sample

Participants are selected according to their frequency in the target population. Subgroups (strata) are identified, such as gender or age groups. The relative percentages of the subgroups in the population are reflected in the sample.

Survey / Questionnaire

A research method consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents

Systematic sample

Participants are selected using a set ‘pattern’/sampling frame. Every nth person is selected from a list of the target population. e.g. Every 5^th person in the year 11 register at a school

Target population

The large group of people that a researcher is interested in studying, for example - university students.  

Temporal validity

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras

Triangulation

The use of multiple methods or data sources in a qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena

Validity

The extent to which a research technique measures the behaviour it claims to measure.  

Variable

Something that can be changed or varied, such as a characteristic or value.  

Volunteer sample

Participants select themselves e.g. responding to an advert.

Credibility & Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

The extent to which the research tests what it intends to test (equivalent of validity) but in relation to the researcher.  

Transferability 

The extent to which findings can be generalised outside of the research population. 

Theoretical Transferability

A concept often associated with qualitative research: the extent to which findings and insights can be applied to similar contexts or situations, rather than broader populations - similar to ‘generalisability’ in quantitative research

Inferential Transferability

A key concept in qualitative research: the extent to which research findings from one study can be applied to other similar situations or contexts

Representational Transferability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied or transferred to other contexts, settings, or populations beyond the specific study sample - similar to ‘external validity’ in quantitative research, but with a focus on qualitative research

Reflexivity

Involves researchers critically examining how their own beliefs, biases, and experiences might influence the research process and findings, acknowledging the subjective nature of qualitative research.

Experimenter bias

Any way in which the experimenter / researcher influences the results. The experimenter may subtly communicate expectations about the outcome of the experiment to the participants (e.g. changes in body language or tones of voice) which can cause the participants to change their behaviour. The experimenter’s interpretation of the data can affect the results of the study: the experimenter may interpret findings to meet expectations. The way that the experimenter interacts with participants can affect the results. If the experimenter is unfriendly or intimidating, participants may choose not to cooperate fully during the experiment.

Observer effect (bias)

Occurs when people are aware they are being observed and change their behaviour – reduces validity of findings.

Gender bias

Gender bias occurs when findings do not accurately represent either gender or there is a gender imbalance in the sample of participants. There are four types of gender bias:

o   Alpha bias: occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated. This is mainly done to emphasise or de-emphasise the value of women.

o   Beta bias: occurs when differences between men and women are ignored or assumed not to exist

o   Androcentric bias: occurs when the results of a study involving males only are generalised to females

o   Gynocentric bias: occurs when the results of a study involving females only are generalised to males

Cultural bias

Can occur if a study ignores the differences between cultures or if theories developed in the study of one culture are inappropriately applied to others. Culturally biased research methods may use participants that are not representative of different cultures. There are two main types of cultural bias:

o   Ethnocentrism: the belief that one culture is superior and should be the basis for judgements of other groups

o   Eurocentrism: emphasises European theories and beliefs. It occurs when Western research is considered a universal view of human behaviour and applied to other cultures.