AP2 - HCC District Final Review

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

aka thyrotropin

anterior pituitary gland --> thyroid gland

regulatory hormone - triggers the release of thyroid hormones

Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)

aka corticotropin

anterior pituitary gland --> adrenal cortex

regulator hormone - stimulates the release of steroid hormones (cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone)

Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)

anterior pituitary gland --> gonads

females - stimulates follicle development and (with the help of LH) stimulates the secretion of estrogen

males - stimulates nurses cells which help promote maturation of sperm cells

inhibited by inhibin

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

anterior pituitary gland --> gonads

females - induces ovulation and promotes secretion of estrogen and progesterone

males - stimulates the secretion of androgens (most important androgen is testosterone)

Prolactin (PRL)

anterior pituitary gland --> mammary glands

females - helps stimulate mammary gland development and stimulates milk production in pregnancy

males - helps regulate angrogen production

Growth Hormone (GH)

aka somatotropin

anterior pituitary gland --> bones, muscles and other tissues

growth, protein synthesis, lipid mobilization and catabolism

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

pars intermedia --> melanocytes in the skin

increase melanin synthesis in the epidermis

Hormones of the posterior lobe of the Pituitary Gland

stores

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - sent to the kidneys - reabsorption of water, elevation of blood volume and pressure

Oxytocin (OXT) -

females - sent to the mammery glands and uterus - labor contractions and milk ejection

males - ductus deferens and prostate gland - contraction of ductus deferens and prostate gland

Hormones of the anterior lobe of the Pituitary Gland

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Gonadotropins:

-Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

-Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Prolactin (PRL)

Growth Hormone (GH)

Hormones of the Adrenal Gland

adrenal cortex

-mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) - targets the kidneys - increases renal absorption of Na+ and water (especially in the presence of ADH), and accelerate urinary loss of K+

-glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone) - targets most cells - increase rate of glucose and glycogen formation by the liver; release of amino acids from skeletal muscles, and lipids from adipose tissues; promote peripheral utilization of lipids; anti-inflammatory effects

-androgens - target most cells adrenal androgens stimulate the development of pubic hair before puberty

adrenal medulla

-Epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE) - target most cells - increase cardiac activity, blood pressure glycogen breakdown, blood glucose levels; releases lipids by adipose tissue

Hormones of the Thyroid gland

thyroid hormones -

triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) - produce a strong and short lived increase in cellular metabolism - increase rates of mitochondrial ATP production - calorigenic effect cell consumes more energy and produces more heat - important in the development of the nervous, skeletal and muscular system

calcitonin - helps to regulate ca2+ concentration in body fluids by stimulating calcium excretion by the kidneys and prevents calcium absorption by the digestive tract

Hormones of the Pancreas and the cells that secrete them

alpha cells -

-glucagon - raises the blood glucose level by increasing the rate of glycogen breakdown and glucose release by the liver

beta cells -

-insulin - lowers the blood glucose levelby increasing the rate of glucose uptake and use by most body cells, and by increasing glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscles and the liver

-amylin -a peptide hormone that levels raise after a meal

delta cells -

-peptide hormone identical to (GH-IH) - suppresses the release of glucagon and insulin by other islet cells and slows the rate of food absorption and enzyme release along the digestive tract

PP cells - pancreatic polypeptide cells

-pancreatic polypeptide (PP) - inhibits gallbladder contractions and regulates the production of some pancreatic enzymes

types of WBC

-neutrophils

-eosinophils

-basophils

-monocytes

-lymphocytes

Neutrophils

50-70% of WBC

attaching to the walls of the blood vessels, blocking the passageway of germs that try to gain access to the blood through a cut or infectious area. Neutrophils are the first cells to reach an area where a breach in the body has been made. They kill germs by means of a process known as phagocytosis or "cell-eating". Besides eating bacteria one-by-one, they also release a burst of super oxides that have the ability to kill many bacteria at the same time

Eosinophils

2-4% of WBC

releasing toxins from their granules to kill pathogens. The main pathogens eosinophils act against are parasites and worms. High eosinophil counts are associated with allergic reactions.

Basophils

<1% of WBC

have the ability to secrete anticoagulants and antibodies that have function against hypersensitivity reactions in the bloodstream. They act immediately as part of the immune system's action against foreign invaders. Basophils contain histamine, which dilates the vessels to bring more immune cells to the area of injury

Monocytes

2-8% of WBC

monocytes do the job of phagocytosis (cell-eating) of any type of dead cell in the body, whether it is a somatic cell or a dead neutrophil. Because of their large size, they have the ability to digest large foreign particles in a wound unlike other kinds of white blood cells.

Lymphocytes

20-40% of WBC

T cells - cell mediated immunity

B cells - humoral immunity - the production of antibodies - differentiate into plasma cells that synthesize and secrete antibodies

Natural Killer (NK) cells - immune surveillance - detection and destruction of abnormal cells - important in the prevention of cancer

fibrogen

function in clotting and accounts for 4% of plasma proteins

blood serum

what remain of blood when the WBC, RBC and fibrogen have been removed

it is the liquid part that is left after coagulation hence the cloting factors (fibrogen) have been removed

plasma

makes up 55% of blood

contains mostly water (92%), plasma proteins (7%)

(albumins, globulins and fibrinogen) and other solutes (1%)

cells-free portion of the blood that has been treated with anticoagulants - reduce the ability of the blood to clot. contains fibrinogen

surface antigens

antigens - substances that trigger an immune response

located on plasma membranes - sustances that your immune system recognizes as normal

ABO blood group

based on the present or absents of A and B surface antigens

Type A - RBC w/ surafce antigen A

Type B - RBC w/ surafce antigen B

Type AB - RBC w/ surafce antigen A and B

Type O - no surface antigens

Rh blood group

based on the presence of absence of surface Rh surface antigens

(Rh+) - Rh surface antigen is present

(Rh-) - absences of Rh surface antigen

agglutinogens

surface antigens

Type A - RBC w/ surafce antigen A

Type B - RBC w/ surafce antigen B

Type AB - RBC w/ surafce antigen A and B

Type O - no surface antigens

agglutinins

antibodies found in blood plasma

that will attack antigens (agglutinogens) on foreign RBC

Type A - anti-B antibodies

Type B - anti-A antibodies

Type AB - no antibodies

Type O - anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies

universal donor

Type O (preferably Type O-)

universal receiver

Type AB

Characteristics of blood

slightly alkaline pH 7.35-7.45

5 times a viscous as water

Plasma - 55% - plasma proteins (albumins, globulins, and fibrinogens); other solutes (nutrients, electrolytes, and wastes); and water

Formed Elements - 45% - RBC, WBC, and cell fragments known as platelets

erythropoiesis

red blood cells formation

takes place in red bone marrow

leukopenia

erythrocytosis

anemia

results if the hematocrit is low (the percentage of red blood cells is below the lower limits of normal) or the Hg (hemoglobin) content of the RBCs is reduced

anemia interferes with oxygen delivery to peripheral tissues . Organ function deteriorates due to oxygen starvation. Anemic individuals become weak, lethargic and confused because the brain is also affected.

hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)

-during delivery of the first baby, the fetal (Rh+) and maternal blood (Rh-) mix and the mother produces anti-Rh antibodies leading to sensitization

-about 20% of (Rh-) mothers who carry (Rh+) babies become sensitized - the first born is not affected because sensitization happens after delivery

-in 2nd pregnancy if the maternal anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta and the baby is (Rh+) the antibodies destroy the fetal RBC and cause a dangerous anemia

Without treatment the fetus will die at or shortly after delivery. The fetus will need an entire body blood transfusion. Production of maternal anti-Rh antibodies can be prevented if antibodies are administered to the mother at weeks 26-28 of pregnancy, and during and after delivery.

Cardiac Conducting System

SIAAP

SA node - embedded in the posterior wall of the right atrium - starts the sequence by causing the atrial muscles to contract - called the "cardiac pacemaker"

Internodal Pathways - distributes the contractile stimulus to atrial muscle cells and the electrical impulse travels from the SA node to the AV node

AV node - located at the junction between the atria and ventricles - acts as a back up to the SA node - signals the ventricles to contract

AV bundle (bundle of His) - conducting cells located right underneath the AV node

Bundle Branches - conducting cells that run between the ventricles

Purkinje Fibers - conducting cells that distribute the stimulus to the ventricular myocardium

What are factors that effect blood flow in the blood vessels?

Peripheral resistance - the resistance of the atrial system; effected by vascular resistance, viscosity, and turbulence

Vessel Elasticity

Blood Volume

Cardiac Output

Function of the Lymphatic System

produce maintain and distribute lymphocytes and other lymphoid cells that provide defense against infections and foreign substances

maintain normal blood volume

eliminates local variation in the composition of the interstitial fluid by distributing hormones nutrients and waste from their tissue of origin into general circulation

Functions of the Urinary System

Regulate blood volume and blood pressure. regulate plasma concentration of sodium potassium and chloride. help stabilize blood pH. conserve valuable nutrients. assist the liver in detoxifying poisons

Specific Immunities

adaptive immunity

specific immunity depends on the activities of specific lymphocytes--B cells and T cells

B cells and T cells organize defense against particular types of bacterium and protect us from further attacks of the same type of pathogen

Non-specific Immunities

innate immunity

immunity you are born with that does not distinguish between one potential threat or another

includes physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes, lining of open cavities, hair secretions and ducts) and internal defense process (phagocytes)

Types of T cells and their function

T-Lymphocytes differentiate into several types of cells that attack antigens and help increase immune response

Cytotoxic T Cells - involved in direct cellular attack. enter peripheral tissue and attack antigens physically and chemically

Helper T cells - stimulate responce of t cells and b cells. must activate b calls before the b calls can provide antibodies. loss of helper T cells during AIDS is responcible for loss of immunity

Regulatory T cells - moderate immune responce

Memory T cells - respond to antigens they have already encountered by cloning more lymphocytes to ward off the invader

Type of Autoimmune diseases

Rheumatoid arthritis - occurs when autoantibodies form immune complexes in connective tissue around the joints

Type 1 Diabetes - develops when autoantibodies attack cells in the pancreas islet

Inflammation of Thyroiditis - autoantibodies against thyroglobin

Multiple sclerosis - maybe due to similarities between amino acid sequences of viruses and the bodies myelin proteins causing the body to get confused and attack the myelin sheath

What are the components of the first line of Immunity?

-skin & mucous membranes

hair, cilia, mucous

-fluid movement

vomiting, diarrhea

urination

saliva, tears, sweat

-reflexes

coughing, sneezing

Types of IG (immunoglobulin) and where are they found?

There are five immunoglobulin classes (isotypes) of antibody molecules found in serum: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE and IgD

Internal Respiration

External Respiration

major cation of the extracellular fluid

sodium Na+

major cation of the intracellular fluid

potassium K+

extracellular fluid

intracellular fluid

Which vitamin is required for proper bone growth and development?

Vitamin D

Which vitamin is required for proper calcium homeostasis?

Vitamin D is required to maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphate, that are in turn needed for the normal mineralisation of bone, muscle contraction, nerve conduction, and general cellular function in all cells of the body

anatomy of the Renal Corpuscle

Which hormone is very likely to be detected in the urine of a pregnancy test?

woman's hCG level typically doubles every 72 hours through 8 to 11 weeks of pregnancy

Effect of Testosterone

Globular Filtration

Glomerular filtration is the process by which the kidneys filter the blood, removing excess wastes and fluids. Filters out everything from the blood (later on the nutrients are put back into the blood while the waste remains in the filtrate and turns into urine)

Tubular Reabsorption

process by which the nephron removes water and solutes from the filtrate and returns them to the circulating blood

Tubular Secretion

removes additional waste from the blood and adds them to the filtrate

What hormones effect the electrolytes (Na+ Cl- Ca++) and water reabsorption by the renal tubules and their effects?

Angiotensin II

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - facultative water reabsorption by increasing the water permeability of principal cells in the last part of the distal convoluted tubule and throughout the collecting duct.

Aldosterone

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

What is the major hormone that regulates water loss?

ADH

Ovaries

produces an ovum

ovaries secrete estrogen, testosterone, inhibin, and progesterone

Estrogen is responsible for the appearance of secondary sex characteristics for females at puberty and for the maturation and maintenance of the reproductive organs in their mature functional state. Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy, and the mammary glands for lactation. Progesterone functions with estrogen by promoting menstrual cycle changes in the endometrium

LH

FSH

Relaxin

relaxin is produced mainly by the corpus luteum, in both pregnant and nonpregnant females; it rises to a peak within approximately 14 days of ovulation, and then declines in the absence of pregnancy, resulting in menstruation.

During the first trimester of pregnancy, levels rise and additional relaxin is produced by the decidua. Relaxin's peak is reached during the 14 weeks of the first trimester and at delivery. It is known to mediate the hemodynamic changes that occur during pregnancy, such as increased cardiac output, increased renal blood flow, and increased arterial compliance. It also relaxes other pelvic ligaments. It is believed to soften the pubic symphysis

Menstrual Phase

Preovulatory Phase

follicular phase - (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation

Ovulation

Ovulation - Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary. secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle and travels through the fallopian tube toward the uterus. oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation

Postovulatory Phase

The Luteal Phase - It begins with the formation of the corpus luteum and ends in either pregnancy or luteolysis. The main hormone associated with this stage is progesterone, which is significantly higher during the luteal phase than other phases of the cycle

Effects of ADH

conserve body water by reducing the loss of water in urine

decreased formation of urine

binds to receptors on cells in the collecting ducts of the kidney and promotes reabsorption of water back into the circulation

constriction of arterioles, which leads to increased arterial pressure

What are the effects of increased renin release by the kidney's?

increase blood pressure, leading to restoration of perfusion pressure in the kidneys

What conditions may increase neutrophil, eosinophil, or lymphocyte count?

infection

inflammation

What are the phases of ovulation and the characteristics of each phase?

Which hormones work to prepare the endometrium for implantation?

Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Estrogen (from the follicle)

Progesterone (from the corpus luteum)

What are the accessory gland of the male reproductive system?

the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands

In what trimester does the baby's skin become smoother as fat is deposited under the skin?

3rd

diaphragm contracts

the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn into the lungs - inhalation

diaphragm relaxes

diaphragm moves upward into the chest cavity. The intercostal muscles between the ribs also relax to reduce the space in the chest cavity drawing air out of the lungs - exhalation

when is air moved outside of the lungs

When the pressure in side the lungs becomes greater than the atmospheric pressure

when is air moved inside of the lungs

When the pressure in side the lungs becomes lower than the atmospheric pressure