learning & teaching: test two vocabulary

Chapter 7: Complex Cognitive Processe

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Metacognition

• Knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes

  • develops over time

• Greater metacognitive awareness = more likely to use effective strategies, have high achievement

Developmental Trends

• Overt strategies

  • taking notes

  • creating summaries

• Covert strategies

  • identifying important information

  • regularly monitoring learning

    • comprehension monitoring: Checking one's understanding and recall periodically. Ex: Answering some practice questions.

      • illusion of knowing - In the absence of monitoring learning and comprehension, students may not realize what they know or do not know; consequently, they may think they have mastered something when they have not.

    • self-explanation: Taking to oneself in the mirror to explain what they’re studying.

    • self-questioning: Answer some practice questions and do a practice test on quizlet.

Factors Affecting Strategy Use

• Learning strategies depend partly on the learning task at hand

  • Sometimes working memory’s limited capacity discourages metacognitive processing

  • Cognitive load – cognitive burden that a particular learning activity places on working memory at any one time; includes both the amount of information learners must simultaneously think about and the specific cognitive processes learners must engage in to understand what they’re studying

 

• Students are likely to acquire and use new, more effective strategies only if they realize that their current strategies are not working

 

• Students’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning influence their strategy choices

  • Epistemic beliefs (epistemological beliefs) – students’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning

 

• Different motives and goals call for different strategies

 

• Students may not have sufficient self-regulation skills to follow up with further study

  • Self-regulation skills - Learners set explicit goals for themselves through active, intentional strategies.

 

• Ongoing instruction and guidance about effective strategies enhances learning and achievement

Diversity, Disabilities, & Exceptional Abilities

• Cultural differences in students’ epistemic beliefs

• Students with disabilities may need explicit instruction, scaffolding

Knowledge Transfer 

• Positive transfer

  • something we’ve learned before helps us learn something new

Example: Group studying session

• Negative transfer 

  • something we’ve learned before makes it harder for us to learn something new

Example: Misunderstanding a rule of physics from a video on youtude.

• Specific transfer

  • what we learned before overlaps with what we’re learning now

Example: Some English words looking like some words in Spanish.

 

• General transfer 

  • learning in one situation affects learning and performance in somewhat dissimilar situation

Example: Having good study practices affects everything in your education in multiple classes.

Factors Affecting Transfer

• Meaningful learning promotes better transfer than rote learning

• Both positive and negative transfer are more common when a new situation appears to be similar to a previous one

• General principles and theories are more easily transferred than discrete facts and task-specific procedures

• Transfer is more common when information and skills are perceived as being relevant to diverse disciplines and real-world situations

  • context-free material more easily transferred than context-bound

• Numerous and varied opportunities for practice increase the probability of transfer

• Computer simulations can also provide means of enhancing the probability of transfer

• Transfer increases when the cultural environment encourages and expects transfer

Recommendations for Teaching Metacognitive Strategies

Components of Creativity

Fostering Creative Thinking

• Show students that creative thoughts and behaviors are valued

• Focus students’ attention on internal rather than external rewards

• Ask thought-provoking questions

• Teach and encourage cognitive and metacognitive strategies that support creative thinking

• Give students the freedom and security they need to take risks

Provide the time and resources that creativity requires

Divergent Thinking

Process of mentally moving in a variety of directions from a single idea.

Convergent Thinking

• Two components

  • new, original behavior

  • productive result

• Involves divergent thinking

Fostering Creativity

• Show students that creative thoughts and behaviors are valued

• Focus students’ attention on internal rather than external rewards

• Ask thought-provoking questions

• Teach and encourage cognitive and metacognitive strategies that support creative thinking

• Give students the freedom and security they need to take risks

Provide the time and resources that creativity requires

Fostering Critical Thinking

• Teach fewer topics, greater depth

• Encourage intellectual skepticism

• Model critical thinking

• Provide opportunities to practice

• Ask questions

• Debate controversial issues

• Help students understand that critical thinking involves considerable mental effort, but it’s worth it

• Embed critical thinking skills in authentic activities

• Require use of critical thinking in classroom assessment tasks

Chapter 8: Learning and Cognition in Context

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Creating a Community of Learners

• All students are active participants in classroom activities

• The primary goal is to acquire a body of knowledge on a specific topic, with students contributing to and building on one another’s efforts

• Students draw on many resources in their efforts to learn more about the topic

• Discussion and collaboration occur regularly and play key roles in learning

• Diversity in students’ interests and rates of progress is expected and respected

• Students and teacher coordinate their efforts in helping one another learn; no one has exclusive responsibility for teaching others

• Everyone is a potential resource for others

• The teacher provides some guidance and direction for classroom activities, but students may also contribute guidance and direction

• Mechanisms are in place through which students can share what they have learned with others

• Constructive questioning and critiquing of one another’s work is commonplace

• The process of learning is emphasized as much as—and sometimes more than—the finished product

Cultures as Contexts

Culture

• Behaviors and beliefs that are passed from old members of a social group to new ones, from generation to generation.

• Facilitates survival and progress

• Both concrete and abstract

Schemas & Scripts

• Schemas

  • organized set of facts about a specific topic (e.g., schema for horses)

• Scripts

  • schema involving predictable sequence of events related to a common activity (e.g., script for doctor’s visit)

• Influenced by culture

Worldviews

• Worldviews

  • General sets of beliefs and assumptions about reality

  • culturally transmitted

  • often encompass implicit knowledge

  • may conflict with academic subject matter

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Linguistic Development

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Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development

Is a psychological theory that explains how social environments affect children’s development. The theory views child development as a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate family and school settings to broad cultural values, laws, and customs. The theory also emphasizes that a child’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her development.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

• Assimilation

  • dealing with a new object or event in a way consistent with a currently existing scheme

• Accommodation

  • schemes must be adjusted when new information doesn’t fit

Stages of Cognitive Development

• Piaget proposed that children move through four stages.

• Periods of time are consistent in age and developmental sequence.

  • Age ranges are averages.

  • Some children are in transition from one stage to the next.

 

Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2)

• Begins with reflexes & sensorimotor schemes

• Goal-directed behavior emerges: Reaching out for a toy.

• Object permanence emerges: When peekaboo don’t amuse the child anymore.

• Symbolic thought emerges

  • transition to new stage

 

Preoperational Stage

• Symbolic representation

• Limited mental manipulation (operations)

• Preoperational egocentrism: Inventing an imaginary friend

• failure to conserve: Regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement, the amount remains the same if nothing is added or taken away.

• Age 2 to about age 6 or 7

 

Concrete Operations Stage

• Some mental manipulation & logical thought

  • can conserve

  • can learn classification, seriation

  • can reverse operations

    • allows for the teaching of mathematics

• Difficulty with abstract and counterfactual ideas: Complex math problems. Ex: Algebra

• Age 6-7 years until 11-12 years

 

Formal Operations Stage

• Abstract & scientific reasoning

• Hypothetical ideas

• Contrary-to-fact ideas

• Adolescents also become more idealistic

  • formal operational egocentrism

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Zone of proximal development

  • the experience of a learner who works successfully with the support of another and extends their knowledge in the process

• Cognitive tool: A culturally constructed tool, such as a concept, symbol, or strategy, that enhances effective problem-solving and decision-making. Ex: Classifying and sorting

• Self-talk: A cognitive process that involves talking to oneself as a way of guiding oneself through a task. It is an effective technique for improving performance and self-regulating behaviors. Ex: Practicing a presentation.

• Inner speech: This refers to the act of having an internal dialogue in one’s own mind, which can involve talking through problems, analyzing situations, or simply thinking about one’s day. Ex: Planning where to eat after studying at the library.

• Internalization: Gradual incorporation of socially based activities into cognitive processes. Ex: Quietly doing your classwork.

• Zone of proximal development: With guidance, a learner can perform tasks outside their ability to perform independently. Ex: Learning to study and finding what works for you.

• Actual developmental level: The upper limit refers to the maximum number of tasks that a learner can proficiently perform without external assistance. Ex: Multitasking while studying or doing classwork.

• Scaffolding: Assistance mechanism provided to a learner for successfully completing a challenging task within their ability level. Ex: Overcoming procrastination.

Ch.3: Personal and Social Development

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Development of Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understanding

Friends

• Mutually invested in relationship emotionally

• Usually similar in age & sex

• Tend to share similar interests

• Friendship helps develop perspective-taking and other social skills

• Cliques

  • exclusive in nature

  • 3 to 10 members

• Crowds

  • larger than cliques, not as exclusive

  • share activities, attitudes, or background

  • can take form of subculture

• Subculture

  • cohesive group

  • characterized by initiation rites, distinctive clothing, & other markers

Romantic Relationships

• Usually evolve from crush to real love

• Often based on attractiveness, social status

• Offers developmental benefits

  • companionship, affection, and security

  • opportunities to experiment with new social skills and interpersonal behaviors

• May be confusing in adolescence

  • sexual feelings & intimacy

  • LGBTQIA+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual or ally, and others)

  • Questioning teens may experience depression while others enjoy good mental health with supportive school and home environments

Popularity & Social Isolation

Popularity & Social Isolation

• Popular students

  • may or may not have high status

  • considered kind, trustworthy by peers

• Rejected students

  • considered undesirable social partners

  • often have poor social skills

  • may be harassed and/or disengaged

• Controversial students

  • some peers like, some dislike

  • usually have good social skills

    • Neglected students

  • almost seem “invisible” to peers

  • higher risk for depression

Social Cognition

Social Cognition

• Ability to think about how other people are likely to think, act, and react

  • perspective taking

  • theory of mind

  • social information processing

Development of Social Cognition

• Childhood

  • some awareness of others’ “inner worlds”

  • understanding that desires, beliefs, intentions can differ

  • understanding that people can mask true feelings, thoughts

• Early adolescence

  • understanding that people can have mixed feelings

  • development of recursive thinking – thinking about what other people may be thinking about oneself, possibly through multiple iterations

• Late adolescence

  • “budding psychologist”

Aggression

• Actions intended to harm others

  • physical aggression: Action that can potentially cause bodily injury.

  • psychological aggression: Consequence that seriously threatens self-esteem and general psychological well-being.

  • proactive vs. reactive aggression: proactive- deliberately aggressive behaviors to obtain desired goals. reactive aggression- deliberately aggressive behaviors in response to frustration or provocation.

• Factors influencing aggression

  • genetic predisposition

  • poor perspective-taking skills

  • misinterpretation of social cues

  • prevalence of self-serving goals

  • ineffective social problem-solving strategies

  • beliefs about appropriateness and effectiveness of aggression

Technology & Peer Relationships

• Cell phones, social networking sites, IM

• Benefits

  • can enhance self-esteem

  • provides connectedness with peers

  • increase in psychological well-being

• Risks

  • relational aggression & cyberbullying

  • misrepresentation of identity

Promoting Healthy Relationships

• Provide opportunities for social interaction, cooperation

• Help students interpret social situations

• Teach specific social skills, provide opportunities for practice, give feedback

• Promote understanding, communication, interaction

• Explain what bullying is and why it cannot be tolerated

• Help change the reputations of formerly antisocial students

• Create a general climate of respect for others

Social and Emotional Learning

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Factors Affecting Personality Development

Personality – characteristic ways in which a particular individual behaves, thinks, and feels in a wide range of circumstances

• Result of both heredity and environmental factors

Temperament

• General predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environments

  • genetically based

  • persist across lifespan

Family Dynamics

• Attachment

  • strong, affectionate bond between child and caregiver

• Parenting style

  • authoritative: A form of parenting with emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision-making.

  • authoritarian: A form of parenting with rigid rules and expectations for behavior to make children obey without question.

  • permissive: A form of parenting allowing excessive freedom of behavior and imposing few consequences for inappropriate actions.

  • neglectful or abusive (child maltreatment): Consistent neglect or abuse of a child endangering the child’s physical and psychological well-being.

Development of a Sense of Self

Sense of self – perceptions, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about oneself as a person; includes self-concept and self-esteem

• Sense of Self

  • assessments of one’s own characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses

  • e.g. Knowing your self-esteem

• Self-Esteem

  • judgments and feelings about one’s own value and worth

  • e.g. How you fit into the beauty standard

Factors Influencing Sense of Self

• Previous performance

  • self-efficacy based on success and failure

• Behaviors of others

  • comparison of self with peers

  • others’ expectations and feedback

• Group memberships and achievements

  • peers, family, culture

Chapter 11: Motivation and Affect

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Key Terms

• Motivation: Provides energy, influences behavior, and keeps people motivated. It motivates people to move forward and emphasizes a specific direction. Ex: Keeping up good grades to keep scholarships that pay for university.

• Time on task: A factor affecting a student's learning and achievement. Ex: Working a job outside of school.

• Extrinsic motivation: Participates in an activity to earn a reward or to avoid punishment external to the activity. Ex: In kindergarten, the teacher asks you to take a form home for your parents to sign and bring it back the next day to receive a treat.

• Intrinsic motivation: It is an enjoyable and interesting activity that motivates one to engage in it; that is, the motivation to engage is internal to the activity. Ex: Passionate about a topic in social justice and writing about it for class.

• Flow: The process of completely absorbing and focusing on a challenging activity, an intense form of intrinsic motivation. Ex: Reading up on and researching about that social justice issue that you feel passionate about.

Carol Dweck’s Research on Praise

Found that children who were praised for working hard were more motivated to take on challenging problems, became more confident in their abilities, and enjoyed solving problems more than children who were praised for being smart. When kids receive praise that’s focused on their efforts, it boosts their sense of agency.

• Growth mindset: The belief that one can learn complex topics by practicing and working hard.

• Fixed mindset: The belief that one doesn’t have the ability to learn in certain areas.

• Learned helplessness: The belief that one is incapable of doing a task and has little or no control of the environment.

Basic Human Needs: Maslow’s Hierarchy

Is an early model regarding human needs, proposing that humans organize their needs in consistent ways.

How Learners Attribute Intelligence Influences…

• Learners’ emotional reactions to success and failure

• Expectations for future success and failure

• Effort and persistence

• Learning strategies and classroom performance

Developmental Trends

With age, children distinguish between various possible causes of their successes and failures, including effort and ability

How Teacher Attributions and Expectations Affect Students’ Achievement

• Teacher beliefs are strongly related to teachers’ interactions with their students.

• Teachers’ attributions for students’ current behaviors affect their expectations for students’ performance.

  • usually formed early in the year

  • often reflect fixed mindset

  • communicated to students in explicit or subtle ways

 

• Affect both motivation and achievement

  • Can lead to self-fulfilling prophecy

    • Expectations for an outcome either directly or indirectly lead to the expected result

    • What teachers expect students to achieve becomes what students actually do achieve

  • Can lead to teacher support and appropriate assistance

Teacher Expectations: Forming Productive Attributions and Expectations for Student Performance

• Remember that teachers make a difference.

• Look for strengths in every student.

• Consider multiple explanations for low achievement, classroom misbehavior.

• Communicate optimism about what students can accomplish.

• Objectively assess students’ progress.

• Attribute successes to high ability and controllable factors.

• Attribute successes to effort only if effort is considerable.

• Attribute failures to controllable, easily remedied factors.

• When students fail despite obvious effort, attribute failures to lack of effective strategies; help them acquire such strategies. 

Affect and Its Effects

Emotions, general moods that a learner brings to bear on a task

Facilitative Anxiety vs. Debilitative Anxiety

Facilitating anxiety is little anxiety that leads the learners into action, while debilitating anxiety is a mass amount of anxiety that interferes with performance. The difference between facilitating and debilitating anxiety is the amount of anxiety. Facilitating anxiety example: Completing a small assignment. Debilitating anxiety example: Studying for huge final exam.