UNIT 3/4 PSYCH EXAM (merged sets)

what’s the central nervous system

The CNS is a network of neurons throughout the brain & spinal cord.

The main role is to process information from the senses and to create efferent responses.

what does the CNS consist of & define (2)

THE BRAIN = is a network of neurons that processes information.

SPINAL CORD = is a long column of nerve tissue that runs from the bottom of the brain to the lower back, linking the brain to parts of the body.

what’s the peripheral nervous system and its sub categories

Includes all parts of the nervous system but the brain and spinal cord.

• Further broken into 2more parts:

  Stomatic nervous system (things you do voluntarily)

  Autonomic nervous system (things you do involuntary)

what’s the stomatic nervous system (what category is it part of)

PART OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

has voluntary control of senses and skeletal muscles, carrying afferent information from the 5 senses to the CNS.

what’s the autonomic nervous system (2 subcategories & what larger caterogy it’s part of)

PART OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Controls the body’s internal environment in an involuntary and self-regulated manner.

Directly connects to organs, glands and visceral muscles.

Broken up into sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.

what’s the sympathetic nervous system (what happens)

PART OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

prepares the body for action/threat by putting adrenaline into the bloodstream.

• Pupils dilate = to let more light in allowing us to see threat better

• Increased HR/BR = to allow more blood to the muscles.

• Increase fats and sugars into bloodstream = to give more energy

what’s the parasympathetic nervous system (what happens)

PART OF THE AUTONOMIC SYSTEM

returns our responses to normal homeostasis after threat.

• Pupils constrict = to return to normal

• Reduced HR/BR = back to stable and normal levels

• stomach and digestion begins to digest

fight, flight freeze and which system is dominate

the body’s natural reaction to threat or danger, which cause instant physiological changes.

• When fighting or fighting the sympathetic nervous system is dominant.

• When the body is freezing or ‘on-hold’ the parasympathetic nervous system is dominant.

define and example of fight

dealing with the stressor directly

example = picking up a vase and throwing it at a robber

define and example of flight

escaping the stressor

example = running away from robber in your house

define and example of freeze

immobilization of body to avoid detection

example = staying still to hide from robber

this stage only usually occurs for a short amount of time, then we fight or fly. This gives our body a chance to think about what to do next

3 types of neuron, acronym and what happens in a neuron

1. SENSORY NEURONS = afferent pathways (burning hand on toaster)

2. MOTOR NEURONS = efferent pathways (kicking a football/doing tasks)

3. INTERNEURONS = only found in brain and spinal cord send messages between other neurons

Use ‘SAME’ acronym Sensory/afferent & Motor/efferent.

A neuron fires an Action Potential down the Axon away from the Soma in the direction of the Axon Terminals.

what do dendrites do

receives data or signals from another neuron

what does an axon do

transmits electrical impulses or actions and connects neurons (nerve cells) to that they can communicate.

what does the myelin sheath do

allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells.

what does the axon terminal / end buttons do

allows the neuron to connect and send electrical impulses to another neuron

what does the synapse and neurotransmitter do

• at synapse one neuron sends a message to another neuron (right)

• carry chemical signals (“messages”) from one neuron (nerve cell) to the next target cell.

what type of messages do neurons send/ define pre & post synaptic neurons and neural synapse

electrochemical messages

wen the message is within the neuron it is electrical & when the message is external and being received from the neuron its chemical.

• Pre-synaptic neuron sends the message

• Post-synaptic neurons are receiving the message

• Neural Synapse is the point where two neurons ‘meet’ and transfer a ‘message’.

7 stages of conscious processing

1. Stimuli is detected by sensory receptors

2. Information is then carried along afferent pathways via sensory neurons

3. This information is then passed on to interneurons within the spinal cord which carry it to the brain

4. The brain then processes this information and formulates an appropriate motor response

5. This motor response is then transmitted back to the interneurons within the spinal cord

6. Then passed to the motor neurons which travel along efferent pathways and to the skeletal muscles

7. Then action is done (specifically apply to question)

what are the two types of unconscious responses

1. Physiological response of the autonomic nervous system

2. The spinal reflex

what the physiological response of the autonomic nervous system

• Autonomic NS controls unconscious physiological responses involving visceral (smooth) muscles, organs and glands.

• Visceral muscle is found inside organs such as the heart (so it pumps blood).

what’s the spinal reflex

is an involuntary response to dangerous or harmful stimulus

stages of spinal reflex (5)

1. The harmful or dangerous stimuli is detected by sensory receptors

2. Sensory information travels along afferent pathways via sensory neurons

3. This then goes to the interneurons in the spinal cord which relay the information straight to a motor neuron

4. This motor neural signal then initiates an automatic and unconscious response as the information has not gone to the brain straight away

5. Finally, these motor signals are carried along efferent pathways to the skeletal muscles which then respond (either retracting the body part or moving it way from danger)

what happens after the spinal reflex

After the sensory information continues up to the brain via afferent pathways and then the brain independently registers the pain (this is only AFTER the response has happened)

6 steps of synapse / neurotransmission

1. When we have a thought, it’s called neurotransmission.

2. A neuron is activated and fires an action potential which travels down the axon, away from stoma towards the end terminals

3. Inside the terminal buttons are synaptic vesicles which are filled with neurotransmitters (pre-synaptic neuron)

4. When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons, it triggers the release of the neurotransmitters

5. The synaptic vesicles merge with the membrane at the end terminals and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap

6. Then the neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic gap towards the receptor sites on the dendrites Neurotransmitters then bind to the corresponding and specialized receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron

what’s an exhibitory and an inhibitory neurotransmitter

1. There is increased likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire an action potential / neural electrical impulse

2. There is a decreased likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire an Action Potential.

what’s the main exhibitory neurotransmitter

glutamate

what does Glutamate do and an example

• plays an important role in learning and memory in the brain by stimulating structural and functional changes to connections between neurons.

• For example, as you read your notes and start to understand, Glutamate is being released in order for you to learn and creates a neural pathway in your brain to form a memory.

what’s the main inhibitory neurotransmitter

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).

what does GABA do & an example when there is too little GABA.

• decreases likelihood of post-synaptic neuron firing.

• Having too much/not enough of one neurotransmitter can be harmful

• For example, if there is too little GABA in the brain, the excitatory effects of Glutamate may cause too much stimulation of neurons which can lead to mental health disorders such as Anxiety

what are neuromodulators and neuromodulation

some neurotransmitters can influence or modulate the effects of neurotransmitters, these are called modulators and the process is called neuromodulation.

(they change the synaptic efficiency)

2 types of neuromodulation changes & an example

• presynaptic via alteration in the number of neurotransmitters released

  OR

• Postsynaptic by altering receptor sensitivity

Example = it can change the reactivity of receptors to another type of neurotransmitter (e.g Glutamate) – making it either more excitatory than normal or more inhibitory than normal.

how impactful are neuromodulators & how fast/slow are they?

• chemical messages are released into broader areas and can affect a large number of neurons at once.

• Therefore, an entire neural tissue, brain area, pathway or multiple pathways may be influenced by exposure to a neuromodulator’s action.

• Neuromodulators work more slowly than neurotransmitters, their effects take longer to become established a last longer

compare neurotransmitter & neuromodulators in terms of role, site of releasees, target, speed and effectiveness (time)

what is dopamine

is a neuromodulator and reinforces neural activity associated with pleasure, movement, attention, mood, cognition and motivation.

it can be both excitatory and inhibitory.

what is dopamine associated with and what happens

the reward pathway

when we do something pleasuring our body release dopamine creating feelings of pleasure and therefore the more dopamine the more likely we are to want to repeat the action

the reward pathway (what it is associated with, what it does, pathways)

associated with dopamine.

controls responses to natural rewards such as food, sex, and social interactions and important for motivation. The dopamine reward pathway has two overlapping pathways called

1. Mesolimbic

2. Mesocortical

what does the substantia nigra do, where is it, what occurs when damaged?

it’s located within the midbrain.

it produces dopamine which carries messages that allow smooth, coordinated function of muscles and movements.

when damaged = we get less dopamine which leads to irregular and fewer messages about motor activity causing muscle stiffness

dopamine and thirst

The gulping motion made by the throat and the liquid swallowed sends messages to the brain that water has been consumed, quieting neurons that generate the urge to drink.

This action allows reward signals to be carried by dopamine along the brains reward pathway.

dopamine and hunger

Hunger is a motivational sensation that led us to eating food.

The consumption of food release dopamine and gives us a feeling of pleasure. The dopamine reward pathway is prominent in controlling appetite and motivational drive for food.

steps of hunger and dopamine (5)

1. dopamine is decreased below baseline in the reward pathway

2. the sensation of hunger is felt

3. increased food seeking and eating behavior

4. dopamine levels increase above baseline in rewards pathway

5. pleasure experienced (reinforcing actions)

steps of dopamine and addiction (5)

1. Behavior occurs

2. Dopamine is released

3. Pleasure and excitement is felt

4. More dopamine is need to feel these same feelings

5. Behavior must increase to do this = addiction

how to naturally boost dopamine

• Eating a healthy diet

• Foods rich in L-tyrosine (dopamine protein)

  Example = banana, almonds, beef, eggs, avocado

what is serotonin, where it is and what it does

• is an inhibitory modulator

• More than 90% of the body’s serotonin is found in the gastrointestinal track

• It modulates behavioral processes such as mood, perception, anger, aggression, memory, sexuality and attention

where is serotonin produced and what high/low levels mean

It’s produced in the brain stem and then travels to the cerebrum & cerebral cortex, modulating activity in these areas.

 

• High/ balanced serotonin = improves mood (allows for calmness, focus, happiness, attentiveness and stable moods.

• Low serotonin = mood declines (associated with anxiety and depression)

potential causes of low mood

can be caused by faulty serotonin receptors and lack of tryptophan (amino acid which serotonin is made from) located in the gut.

serotonin and sleep

low levels have been shown to disrupt the rhythm of the sleep wake cycle & disrupt the release of melatonin (sleep hormone from the pineal gland)

serotonin and impulsivity (high and low levels)

It helps regulate brain activity associated with impulsive behavior.

• Low serotonin in the grain leads people to be less likely to wait for a reward (increasing impulsive behavior)

• High levels of serotonin lead people waiting longer for rewards (reducing impulsivity)

serotonin and aggression (low levels)

Serotonin helps regulate brain activity associated with aggressive behavior.

• Low Serotonin affects communication between structures such as the amygdala and frontal lobe which is responsible for regulating emotions

Therefore, low levels can generate more emotional experiences and aggression, due to breakdown in structures and their communications.

boosting serotonin (food)

• Tryptophan is a raw material for Serotonin (produced in the gut)

Therefore, Serotonin is lower when you haven’t eaten.

• Foods like poultry (chicken soup) and chocolate can boost Serotonin – which is why they may be referred to as feel good foods

define synaptic plasticity and list the two versions

specific changes that occur within the synapses between neurons due to repeated stimulation or lack of repeated stimulation.

There are 2 important processes in synaptic plasticity

• Long term potentiation (LTP)

• Long term depression (LTD)

define long term potentiation (LTP), what happens & what it does

The relatively permanent strengthening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated activation of a neural pathway.

• Happens when a natural pathway is activated during and Glutamate is released (excitatory)

• Repeated stimulation and release of Glutamate allows for strong neural connections and memory will become stronger / more permanent.

define long term depression (LTD), what happens and why its helpful

is a relatively permanent weakening of synaptic connections as a result of repeatedly lower levels of activity in a neural pathway.

• happens when a neural pathway is NOT activated any longer, strong connections become weaker over time.

• it’s helpful because it allows the brain to reduce neural connections that are no longer useful

list the 3 modifications to the synapse

1. Sprouting

2. Rerouting

3. Pruning

define sprouting and when it occurs (LTP or LTD)

the growth of axon or dendrite fibers at the synapse

• it occurs during LTP

define rerouting and when it occurs (LTP or LTD)

the formation of new networks between neurons to establish alternate neural paths

• it occurs during LTP

define pruning and when it occurs (LTD or LTP)

the removal of extra neurons & synaptic networks to grow efficiency of transmission (fine tuning / enhancing efficiency of brain functioning)

• it occurs during LTD

structural changes in LTP

• increased number of receptor sites

• bushier dendrites on the post-synaptic neuron due to sprouting

• increased number of synaptic connections between neurons due to sprouting

structural changes in LTD

• decreased number of receptor sites

• decreased number of dendrites on the postsynaptic neuron due to pruning 

• decreased number of synaptic connections between neurons due to pruning

what happens during LTP (not structural)

• Increased strength on neural connections

• As a result, increased release of neurotransmitters (in particular glutamate)

what happens during LTD (not structural)

• Involves decreased strength of synaptic connections

• As a result, decreased release of neurotransmitters

define stress

a state of metal, physical and emotional tension

2 types of stress

1. eustress - good stress

2. distress - bad stress

stressor

stimulus that causes a stress response

2 types of stressors & examples

1. internal - exists within the person (illness, bad thoughts, low confidence, headache, injury / pain) they can be psychological or biological in nature

1. external - exists outside the person (tests, bullying, no money, war)

stress response (examples / sub-categories)

1. physiological - rashes, headaches, cold/flu, heart palpations, headaches, stomach ulcers

2. psychological

   behavioral (eating & sleep change)

   emotional (irritability, aggression)

   cognitive (poor memory & concentration)

what occurs during acute stress / FFF

during acute stress (FFF) the body releases adrenaline from the adrenal gland, in order to give us energy to respond helping increase HR and BR

cortisol’s role when not dealing with stress

1. anti-inflammatory / helps with immune system **

2. regulate metabolism

3. gives us energy

what does cortisol do in times of chronic stress

when experiencing stress the body utilizes and creates more cortisol…

• this helps give us energy,

• use glucose more effectively = heightening awareness

• repair issues in body caused by stress

• divert energy from non-essential functions digestion, growth, reproduction

cortisol, stress & illness

how when utilize more cortisol during stress it suppresses our immune system which can make us more susceptible to illness

3 stages of GAS model / what it measures

measures the physiological effects of stress

1. alarm reaction - shock & countershock

2. resistance

3. exhaustion

what happens during phase 1 of alarm reaction

during shock the body’s resistance to deal with the stressor falls below normal.

we experience:

• decrease muscle tone, glucose and body temp

• responding as though injured (may faint)

This is only a quick reaction and doesn’t last long

what happens during phase 2 of alarm reaction

in countershock the body’s resistance to deal with the stressor raises gradually above normal level.

we experience:

• a release of adrenaline and cortisol

• activation of FFF

• increasing HR,BR, pupils dilate, more glucose in blood

• doesn’t last long - seconds to mins

what happens during resistance

if the stressor beings to persist over a longer period of time we must adapt to it, and resistance to deal with stressor increases above normal level.

We experience:

• cortisol at it’s highest

• interference with immune system causing flu/cold symptoms and headache

• may lead to moodiness and irritability

what happens in exhaustion

the body has run out of ability to fit the prolonged stress and resistance to stressor falls below normal.

we experience:

• inability to go about everyday life

• causes server physical and psychological issues like heart conditions, depression, stomach ulcers, anxiety.

acronym for GAS model

S - shock (in alarm reaction

C - countershock (in alarm reaction)

A - alarm reaction

R - resistance

E - exhaustion

pros and cons of gas

pros:

• highlights and focuses on physiological impacts of stress

• shows that there is a connection between chronic stress and illness

cons:

• not subject and assumes all people react biologically the same way to stress

• only focuses on biological effects of stress and dient consider the psychological impacts too

what is the transactional model of stress and coping

is a model that represents the psychological impacts of stress and the understanding that people react to and classify stressors differently.

2 stages in the transactional model of stress and coping

1. primary appraisal

2. secondary appriasal

what is primary appraisal in the transactional model of stress and coping

when a person determines how significant a situation is to them

2 subcategories in primary appraisal

1. stressful

   • threat - anticipated that damage may happen in the future, “this might happen”

   • harm - damage has now occurred and the event has happened, “this has happened”

   • challenge - potential for growth, growth mindset, “how can i grow from this”

2. not stressful

   • benign/ positive - affects you in a good way

   • irrelevant - doesn’t affect you at all

what is secondary appraisal

this occurs if a stressor fits in the stressful category (of primary appraisal), because the person must now do something to manage the stress / situation

what happens in secondary appraisal

when a person is in this appraisal they use what is known as coping strategies that are available to them.

• if a coping strategy is effective the stress is reduced

• if a coping strategy is ineffective then the stress is increased

pros and cons of the transactional model of stress and coping

pros

• it focuses on and highlights the psychological effects of stress

• shows that individuals psychologically react and categorise stress differently

cons:

• difficult to experiment and test due to subjective nature

• only considers psychological effects of stress and doesn’t consider physiological

what is the gut brain axis / define

is the connection between the central nervous system and the enteric nervous system. (brain and gastrointestinal tract)

how many ways can the gut-brain axis communicate

is biodirectionnal which means that messages go both ways (from gut to brain and brain to gut)

what’s in our stomach/gut

we have a gut microbiome that consist of gut microbiota

what does the gut microbiota do / help / limit (8)

• produce neurotransmitters (dopamine, GABA, 80% of serotonin

• limiting immune system impairments

• limiting digestive issues

• helping body’s reaction to stress

• mood

• cognitive function

• neurological disorders (autism / parkinson’s)

• various mental disorders

what does change in gut microbiota do (early or throughout life)

can cause deficiency of certain microbiota / bacteria which reduces microbiome diversity, this is linked to issues. BUT treatment with healthy gut microbiota can reduce anxiety and stress (shown in humans and mice)

what does stress do to the microbiota (5)

can disturb the balance of the gut microbiota / microbiome diversity and impact

• susceptibility to stress (likelihood of getting it)

• physiological response to stress

• psychological response to stress

• resilience to stress

• recovery from stress

microbiome / biota research (1)

1. infants who’s mothers were highly stressed during pregnancy and had high levels of cortisol in blood, tend to have abnormal composition of gut microbiota

   • infants born to these mothers have higher levels of harmful bacteria and lower levels do beneficial bacteria in their own gut

microbiome / biota research (2)

2. mice born and raised in sterile conditions / labs had very few microbiotas. Experimenters then transferred microbiotas associated with stress into them and found that their gut and body demonstrated worse stress responses compared to normal mice

• higher HR, higher blood pressure

define coping

is all the things we do to mange and meet the demands of the stress from the stressor in an effective way

what’s a coping strategy

is a method used to mange or reduce stress produced by a stressor

what influences weather a coping strategy works

1. coping flexibility

2. context specific awareness

coping flexibility (what it impacts / define)

impacts if a coping strategy works.

it is how we can adapt modify or change a coping strategy to meet the demands of different stressors.

high & low coping flexibility

high = able to produce more adaptive coping strategies, resulting in decreased stress and responses

low = tend to rely on the same limited coping strategies to deal with stress (despite the situation) even if they are ineffective

what’s context specific awareness / what it impacts & example

impacts how we cope with stress

when we pick a coping strategy that is the most appropriate for the particular situation

(it matches the demands of the stressor and person)

Example = want to run a marathon, you get up and train

interlink with coping flexibility & context specific awareness

often if the coping strategy is not working we show “coping flexibility” and adapt our strategy to the stress to show “context specific awareness.”

approach strategy’s (define & examples)

confronting the stressor directly, to eliminate it.

examples =

• seeking advice from a teacher

• talking it out with somebody

• looking at a problem from a positive side

• developing plans to increase control