The Research Enterprise in Psychology - Chapter 2 Flashcards

Flashcards covering key concepts from 'The Research Enterprise in Psychology' Chapter 2 notes, including the scientific process, research methods, data analysis, and ethics.

What are the four steps of the scientific process?

1. Identify a question, 2. Form a hypothesis, 3. Gather information, 4. Analyze the data.

What is a theory?

A plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.

What are the four characteristics of a good theory in psychology?

1. Organizes information in a meaningful way, 2. Is testable (disprovable), 3. Predictions are supported by research, 4. Conforms to the Law of Parsimony (Occam's Razor).

What hypothesis was formed in the Kitty Genovese bystander intervention example?

IF multiple bystanders are present, THEN a diffusion of responsibility will decrease each bystander's likelihood of intervening.

What are the three main problems when studying humans in psychology?

Complexity, variability, and reactivity.

What is hindsight understanding?

Proposing an explanation that makes sense after viewing a behavior.

What is an operational definition in psychological research?

A description of a property in concrete, measureable terms, ensuring what is being studied is precisely defined.

What is the primary goal of descriptive research?

To describe behavior in nature.

What is a case study?

A method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual (n=1).

What is a key disadvantage of case studies?

They are not generalizable to the larger population.

What is a 'sample' in survey research?

A subset of individuals from the population that ideally possesses the important characteristics of the population in the same proportions.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing people in their natural environment when they do NOT know they are being observed.

What is a main limit of naturalistic observation?

The experimenter cannot inform a person they are being observed, making it difficult to study rare behaviors or requiring long observation periods.

What is the purpose of correlational research?

To look for relationships between variables.

Can correlational studies determine if one variable causes another?

No, correlation does not imply causation.

What does a positive correlation mean?

An increase in one variable relates to an increase in the other, or a decrease in one relates to a decrease in the other.

What does a negative correlation mean?

An increase in one variable relates to a decrease in the other.

What symbol denotes the strength of a correlation, and what is its range?

The letter 'r', with a range of -1 to +1.

What does r=0 indicate in a correlation?

No correlation between the variables.

What are the benefits of correlational studies?

They allow for knowledgeable predictions, can suggest variables for experiments to determine causality, and are useful when manipulation of variables is impossible.

What is the 'third variable problem' in correlational research?

Two variables may be correlated only because they are both causally related to a third, unmeasured variable.

How can the third variable problem be accounted for?

Through matched samples (participants in two groups match) or matched pairs (each participant matches another).

What is the only research method that can truly infer causality?

Experimental research.

What is an independent variable (IV)?

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The variable that is measured in a study.

What is the difference between a between-subjects and a within-subjects design?

Between-subjects uses two groups of different subjects (control vs. experimental), while within-subjects uses one group where participants serve as both control and experimental.

What is a placebo?

A harmless substance that looks like the treatment drug, used to counter expectation effects in an experiment.

What are the three characteristics of good measurements in research?

Reliability (produces same measurement when measuring same thing), validity (conceptually related to property of study), and power (ability to detect conditions specified in operational definition).

What are demand characteristics in psychological research?

Aspects of an observational setting that make people behave as they think they should.

How can researchers reduce demand characteristics?

By ensuring participant anonymity and confidentiality, using measures not susceptible to demand characteristics (e.g., fMRI), using deception, or including filler items.

What is experimenter expectancy effects or observer bias?

When scientists unconsciously influence participants' responses or behavior, either by seeing what they want to see or by unconsciously cueing participants.

How can observer bias be reduced?

Through double-blind studies (neither researcher nor participant knows treatment/control) or using automated measurement devices.

What is random sampling?

A technique for choosing participants that ensures every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

What is random assignment?

A procedure that uses a random event to assign people to the experimental or control group.

What are descriptive statistics?

Methods for describing and summarizing data, including central tendency and variability.

What are the three measures of central tendency?

Mode (most frequent measurement), Mean (average value), and Median (middle value).

What are the two measures of variability?

Range (largest minus smallest measurement) and standard deviation (average difference between measurements and the mean).

What is a normal distribution?

Also known as a Gaussian distribution or 'bell-curve', it is symmetrical with a central peak and tails off to both ends.

What are inferential statistics?

Tests the significance of differences between groups to determine if an observed effect is meaningful.

What does 'p < 0.05' refer to in statistically significant results?

It means the probability that random assignment failed (and results are due to chance) is less than 5%.

What is the null hypothesis?

States that any observed differences between samples are due to chance, and is assumed true until rejected with statistically significant results.

What is internal validity in an experiment?

The characteristic of an experiment that establishes the causal relationship between variables.

What is external validity?

An experimental property where variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way, and is key for drawing broader conclusions.

What are the two general principles of the 1979 Belmont Report for ethics with humans?

Respect people's right to make decisions for themselves (no coercion), and minimize risks while maximizing benefits (distribute benefits/risks equally).

What are key ethical considerations for human participants according to the APA?

Informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, debriefing (if deception is used), and confidentiality.

What are key ethical considerations for animal subjects according to the APA?

Researchers must be trained in animal care, minimize discomfort/infection/illness/pain, justify pain/discomfort with significant societal benefit, and perform surgical procedures under anesthesia.