UPenn Psyc 181 (Developmental Psychology) Key Terms for Exam 1

meta analysis

a method of combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them

amygdala

an area of the brain that is involved in emotional reactions

nature

our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents

nurture

the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development

genome

each person's complete set of hereditary information

epigenetics

the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

methylation

a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression

neurotransmitters

chemicals involved in communication among brain cells

sociocultural context

the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child's environment

Socioecomonic Status (SES)

a measure of social class based on income and education

cumulative risk

the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development

scientific method

an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion

hypotheses

testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations

reliability

the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent

interrater reliability

the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior

test-retest reliability

the degree of similarity of a participant's performance on two or more occasions

validity

the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

internal validity

the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing

external validity

the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research

structured interview

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

questionnaire

a method, similar to the structured interview, that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting them with a uniform set of questions

clinical interview

a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides

naturalistic interview

examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher

structured observation

a method that involved presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant's behavior

variables

attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity

correlational designs

studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other

correlation

the association between two variables

direction of causation problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other

third-variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

experimental designs

a group of approaches that allow inferences about cause and effect to be drawn

experimental control

the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences that children have during the course of an experiment

random assignment

a procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment

experimental group

the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest

control group

the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly

independent variable

the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive

dependent variable

a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable

cross-sectional design

a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period

longitudinal design

a method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time

microgenetic design

a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period

counting-on strategy

counting up from the larger addend the number of times indicated by the smaller addend

The "turtle shell" technique is an example of a successful intervention that helps preschoolers cope with what?

Their own anger

What is meta analysis?

A method for combining and analyzing the results from several independent studies

Studies have shown that children's testimony is usually accurate when which of the following conditions are met?

The interviewer does not ask leading questions.

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory proposed that development is strongly influenced by biological drives. In contrast, John Watson's behaviorist theory proposed that development is determined by what?

Rewards and punishments

According to developmentalists, which of the following is true?

Development is influenced by the joint workings of nature and nurture.

The concept of the "active child" refers to:

how children contribute to their own development.

In recent decades, researchers have come to the conclusion that, after infancy, most developmental changes occur:

gradually.

In the context of mechanisms of developmental change, the study of the development of "effortful attention" provides insights into:

the role of brain activity, genes, and learning experiences.

The physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up a child's environment are known as the:

sociocultural context.

The first basic step in using the scientific method involves:

choosing a question.

In order to generalize her findings beyond the individuals who participated in her study, Dr. Liu needs to conduct additional research using participants from a variety of backgrounds. What quality of behavioral research is Dr. Liu addressing?

external validity

The experience that children in an experimental group receive that children in the control group do not receive is referred to as the:

independent variable.

A team of researchers is studying whether there are stable individual differences in sleeping behavior at various ages. They decide to test 3 month olds, 6 month olds, and 9 month olds. What type of design are they using to examine this question?

cross-sectional

Which type of design is used to study developmental changes as it is occurring by observing participants numerous times over a relatively short span of time?

microgenetic

According to the Society for Research in Child Development, which of the following ARE stated ethical principles for conducting research with children?

1) Unforeseen consequences must be dealt with when they arise during research
2) Researchers must correct any inaccurate impressions that the child may develop as a result of the study.
3) The research must not harm the child, physically and psychologically.

epigenesis

the emergence of new structures and functions in course development (Aristotle)

gametes (germ cells)

reproductive cells - eggs and sperm that contain only half of the genetic material of all of the other cells in the body

Meiosis

Cell division that produces gametes

conception

the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father

zygote

a fertilized egg cell

embryo

the name given to the developing organism from the third to eighth week of prenatal development

fetus

the name given to the developing organism from the ninth week til birth

mitosis

cell division that results in 2 identical daughter cells

embryonic stem cells

embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell

apoptosis

genetically programmed cell death

identical twins

twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the 2 resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes

fraternal twins

twins that result when 2 eggs happen to be released into the Fallopian tube at exactly the same time and are fertilized by 2 different sperm (only have half the genes in common)

neural tube

a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord

amniotic sac

a transparent, fluid filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus

placenta

a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but as a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to mother)

umbilical cord

a tube containing the blood vessels connecting fetus and placenta

cephalocaudal development

the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head

habituation

a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation

dishabituation

the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus

phylogenic continuity

the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with other animals, especially mammals

teratogen

an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development

sensitive period

the period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors; prenatally, the sensitive period is when the fetus is maximally sensitive to the harmful effects of teratogens

dose-response relation

a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be)

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) involves a range of effects, including facial deformities, mental retardation, attention problems, hyperactivity, and other defects. Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) is a term used for individuals who show some, but not all, of the standard effects of FAS.

state

level of arousal and engagement in the environment, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

an active sleep state characterized by quick, jerky eye movements under closed lids and associated with dreaming in adults

non-REM sleep

a quiet or deep sleep state characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movements and more regular, slow brain waves, breathing, and heart rate

swaddling

a soothing technique, used in many cultures, that involves wrapping a baby tightly in cloths or a blanket

colic

excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason

infant mortality

death during the first year after birth

low birth weight

a birth weight below 5.5 pounds (2500 grams)

premature

any child born at 37 weeks after conception or earlier (normal term is 38 weeks)

small for gestational age

babies who weigh substantially less than normal for whatever their gestational age

developmental resiliance

successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards

The singular cell that forms when two gametes merge during fertilization is called the:

zygote.

Which process of prenatal development is critical to the specialization of cells?

cell differentiation

Harry and Ron are genetically identical twins and are referred to as _______. Althea (a girl) and Stephen (a boy) are also twins, but they are clearly _____ twins.

monozygotic; dizygotic

Which of the following systems protects the developing embryo from dangerous toxins?

placenta

Andrea is 5 months pregnant with her first child. During the sonogram she notices that her child's head is much larger than the rest of its body. Her doctor explains that the disproportionately large head is a result of the normal process of:

cephalocaudal development

Which of the following senses is the least active while the fetus is in the womb?

sight

Logan's dad is thrilled as Logan laughs each time he shows him a new tog: a monkey that squeaks when he pushed on its belly. After repeated exposure to the speaking monkey, Logan becomes bored and no longer laughs. This process is known as:

habituation.

The DeCasper and Spence study where pregnant women read aloud twice a day from the same book during their last 6 weeks of pregnancy was designed to assess:

fetal learning.

The following influence the severity of the effect of the teratogen on a developing fetus:

1) timing of exposure
2) quantity of exposure
3) duration of exposure

The following are symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome:

1) facial deformities
2) intellectual disability
3) attention problems