Psychology Lectures 1

When does Prenatal Development Occur and what are the 3 stages?

Conception to birth - the 9 months of pregnancy. The 3 stages include:

1. Germinal Stage (0-2 week2)

2. Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks)

3. Foetal stage (8 weeks-birth)

What happens during the Germinal Stage?

This stage takes place from conception up until 2 weeks. In conception, the sperm cell officially fertilizes the ovum (egg) and a zygote is formed. Then, rapid cell division occurs and they migrate into the uterus. Implants into the uterine wall form a placenta.

What happens during the Embryonic Stage?

This stage takes place from the 2nd week up until the 8th week. It signifies the development of the placenta and the umbilical cord. During this time, most of the vital organs and bodies systems (heart, spine, brain) emerge. This is a very vulnerable period, therefore the embryo is contained within a say in the uterus and is surrounded by amniotic fluid that protects it.

What happens during the Foetal stage?

This stage takes place from 8 weeks up until birth. During the earlier part of this stage muscles and bones form. In the third month, sex organs develop and brain cells multiply in the final three months. By the 26th week, ,the zone of viability is reached, when the baby could officially survive if it were to be born prematurely. At about 22-23 weeks, the changes of survival are small but at 26-28 weeks, the changes improve by around 85%.

What 6 main factors influence prenatal development?

1. Genetic disorders

2. Maternal nutrition

3. Maternal stress and emotion

4. Maternal drug use

5. Maternal illness and psychopathology

6. Culture, family, and environmental toxins

When does the Neonatal period occur and what does to signify?

Spans from around the first 2 to 4 weeks after birth. Where the neonate (newborn baby) traditions from a safe environment of its mother’s uterus to an environment where it but survive on its own. At this point the neonate displays more than 20 reflexes over which they initially have no control (rooting, sucking, swallowing, response to stimuli, etc).

In what ways are neonates able to take in information? (Perceptual development)

1. Vision → Present at birth, cannot focus properly, neonates actively scan their surrounding, can see objects 21 cm away, they have distinct preferences for looking at faces, patterns, etc.

2. Hearing → Can distinguish human speech from other sounds, they have a preference for their mother's voice & baby talk directed at them.

3. Taste and smell → Well developed sense of smell and can differentiate between different smells. There sense of taste is also developed(can tell the difference between sweet and sour)

What does the preschool period signify and what developmental trends classify it?

Signifies a period of rapid growth during the first 2 years and a slower growth between 2-6yrs old. During this time, children improve both gross motor skills and fine motor skills. The growth follows the:

1. Cephalocaudal developmental trend

2. Proximodistal developmental trend

Cephalocaudal Developmental Trend

The pattern of growth that occurs from the head downward. During infancy, babies first gain control of the muscles of the head and neck, followed by the arms and trunk, and finally the legs. Growth is rapid in the first year, with birth weight typically doubling by 4-6 months and tripling by age one. Body proportions also change as the child grows, with the head becoming smaller relative to the rest of the body. At the same time, the brain grows rapidly, increasing from about 25% of its adult weight at birth to 50% by age one, while neural networks become more complex, improving the ability to learn and process information. Both genetics and environmental factors, such as nutrition, influence this development, and malnutrition can negatively affect brain growth and cognitive development.

Gross motor skills

Capabilities involving large body movements such as walking, running, and hopping.

Fine motor skills

Capabilities involving small body movements such as handling a spoon and writing.

Proximodistal Developmental Trend

The pattern of growth that occurs from the centre of the body outward. Children first gain control of the muscles in the trunk and shoulders before developing control of the hands, fingers, and feet. As a result, gross motor skills (such as sitting, crawling, and walking) develop before fine motor skills (such as writing or buttoning clothes). Hand preference, or handedness, usually begins to emerge around age two but is not firmly established until about five to six years of age. Development is influenced by environmental factors, and prolonged malnutrition can lead to stunted physical growth, lower activity levels, and delays in maturation and learning.

When does the Middle Childhood period begin and what is it signified by?

This phase starts from age 6 up until puberty. It is signified by a slower average growth rate, an increase in strength, coordination, and muscular control which all ultimately improve gross and fine motor skills. This period also marks a time of improvement in motor-perceptual functioning (hand-eye coordination). This period of physical growth is influenced by the quality of care, nutrition, and illness. The brain is also continuously growing now. Between ages 5-7 the brain experiences a growth spurt, particularly int he frontal lobes and their connection to other parts of the brain. (Important for planning and the sequential organization of thoughts and actions).

Cognitive Development

The age-related changes that occur in mental activities such as paying attention, perceiving, learning, thinking, and remembering.

What was Jean Piagets view on cognitive development?

Believed that the interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alters the ways in which children think. This change occurs through two complementary processes; Assimilation and Accommodation. Ultimately proposing that children’s thought processes go through a series of 4 major stages: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structured without changing them.

Accommodation

Changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences.

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth to 2 years old. Progressively develops coordination of sensory input and motor responses. From actions of reflex to goal directed activity. Here, the baby has a primitive understanding of the cause and effect and learns through looking, touching, sucking. Symbolic representation (memory, imitation, thought). OBJECT PERMANECE!

Object Permanence

Part of the sensorimotor stage and refers to the recognition that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.

Preoperational Stage

From ages 2-7. Children begin to engage in symbolic thought and pretend plan. But with characteristic flaws in their reasoning which include: Irreversibility, Centation, Egocentrism, Animism. Here they also lack conservation in their thinking and cannot understand that quantities may remain the same regardless of changes in their appearance (a taller glass has more water).

What are the characteristic flaws in the Preoperational Stage?

1. Irreversibility → inability to envision reversing an action

2. Animism → the belief that all things are living, just like oneself

3. Egocentrism → the limited ability to share another viewpoint

4. Centration → the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem

Brief explanation of Language Development

Language development begins with undifferentiated crying at birth. By 1–2 months, different cries communicate different needs, and babies start cooing around 6–8 weeks. At about 4 months, they begin babbling (e.g., “babababa”), which starts to resemble their home language by 6–7 months. Most children say their first word at around 12 months and use holophrases (one-word sentences). By 18 months, they know about 50 words, and by 24 months they use telegraphic speech, containing only essential words. Between ages 3 and 6, vocabulary and sentence complexity increase rapidly, with children acquiring about 10,000 words by age 6 and around 40,000 words by age 10.