As level Aqa Sociology - Family & Households

Family/Household type

What is a Nuclear family?

A family unit consisting of two parents and their children, typically living together. A traditional nuclear family has segregated gender roles.

What is a Extended family?

A family structure that includes 2 or more generations of family members with additions beyond the nuclear family. Horizontal - of the same generation (aunties/uncles & cousins). Vertical - grandparents included.

What is a Beanpole family?

A multi-generational family, but fewer people in each generation due to increased life expectancy. Results in a tall and thin family structure.

What is a Matrifocal family?

A family structure with a female headed household, where the mother is the primary caregiver and financial provider.

What is a Patriarchal family?

A family structure in which the father holds the primary authority and control over family decisions, typically leading to a male-dominated hierarchy.

What is a Cohabiting family?

Couples who live together but are not married.

What is a Empty shell family?

A couple living together but not emotionally committed to one another.

What is a Empty nest family?

A family where the children have left home.

What is a Symmetrical family?

A family structure where both partners share conjugal roles and responsibilities in domestic and economic tasks.

What is a Neo Conventional family?

A family structure characterised by the dual earning model, where both partners are working and share responsibilities, diverging from traditional gender roles.

Childhood

What does Pilcher suggest about childhood?

Pilcher suggests that childhood and adulthood are separate due to: Laws - In place regulating what children are and are not allowed to do and controlling their activities. For example, restrictions on alcohol, age of consent and compulsory education until the age of 18. Products and services - Children use different products and services to adults such as clothing, toys, books, TV programmes and food. Lifestyle/activities - Pilcher argues that childhood is a “golden age” of happiness and innocence where most of children’s time is full of leisure. Innocent and vulnerable - There are safeguarding and child protection laws which keep children separate from the dangers of the adult world.

What are Cross cultural differences?

It is argued that children in non industrial societies are treated differently from their modern western counterparts.

What did Punch (2001) find?

Punch conducted research on childhood in Bolivia and found that children as young as five are made to work and expected to take on responsibilities in the home and community, that are usually associated with adulthood, contrasting from the modern western view. This highlights the significant cultural variations in the experience of childhood.

What did Malinowski (1957) find?

Malinowski conducted ethnographic research in the Trobriand Islands and found that children are sexually aware and play a role in their communities much earlier than in Western societies, highlighting differing attitudes toward childhood.

What did Aries (1960) suggest?

Aries conducted historical research on childhood in Europe.

He argues that childhood in medieval times did not exist, from the time when children were no longer physically dependent on their parents.

In other words they were seen as mini adults.

His evidence came from paintings where children were not distinct from adults, wearing the same clothes and took part in the same activities.

Aries argues that we have now reached a period called the cult of childhood, that these historical changes, from the 10th to 13th century where childhood did not exist, to the 20th century where childhood is seen as a special time with society changing to become obsessed with it.

Evaluate Aries research?

+ Aries work is useful as evidence that childhood is socially constructed. - Criticised for being subjective as the findings are purely based on his interpretations.

What are the reasons for the emergence of modern childhood?

Laws and policies - Factory Acts from the 1800s removed children from the workplace, which ensured that they weren’t being exploited.

Compulsory schooling - Children were seen as a burden, dependent on adults. With the school leaving increasing to 18 in 2014, this separated children from the adult world of work.

Children’s rights - Various children’s acts have given children more power, where they now have a say in their own life and can make decisions without being dictated by their parents.

Decline in family size - More value and time placed on children as there are less of them. Great financial and emotional support.

Growing interest in child development and health - Children need more supervision and protection.

Has the position of children improved?

Some sociologists argue that the position of children has improved, they take on a March of progress view that sees childhood as increasingly positive.

However, Conflict theories suggest that childhood is based on inequalities of power and this negatively impacts on the experience of children.

What does Gittens suggest about childhood?

Gittens suggests that childhood is full of age patriarchy (the ways adults dominate, control and oppress children).

Neglect and abuse - Controlling children through food.

Control over children’s space - Control over where they go.

Control over children’s time - Control when they wake up, have breakfast and go to school.

Control over children’s bodies - Piercings, clothes and hairstyles.

Control over access to resources - Pocket money.

What does Opie argue about childhood?

Opie argues that childhood is staying separate from adulthood through things like children’s books, nursery rhymes, games and songs.

What does Postman suggest about childhood?

Postman argues childhood is disappearing at a dazzling speed.

He suggests that the distinction between childhood and adulthood is becoming blurred due to the rise of media and the availability of information, leading to children being exposed to adult themes and losing their innocence.

What does Palmer suggest about childhood?

Sue Palmer says that we are living in a toxic childhood, where children are exposed to adult content through television like the news showing graphic images.

This is damaging the physical, intellectual and emotional development of children.

What does Hockley and James (1933) suggest about childhood?

Their concept Resistance of status proposes that children try to resist the status of childhood by rebelling through smoking, drinking alcohol and wearing designer clothes.

What does Smart suggest about childhood?

Smart argues that we need to look at how children help shape family life and their relationships within it, emphasising their active role during times of divorce.

What social policies have changed childhood?

1833 and 1867 Factories Act limited working hours to 48 hours a week to ensure children under 13 receive 2 hours of schooling a day; the Education Act of 1944 made education compulsory for children up to age 15, improving access to education and reducing child labour.

Theories of the family

What is the Functionalist view of the family?

Functionalists see the family as an important institution as they see it as a ‘building block’ of society which performs the crucial functions of socialising the young and meeting the emotional needs of its members.

What does George Peter Murdock suggest about the family?

Murdock sees the nuclear as the basic unit around which all family systems are organised.

The family is universal as neither the individual nor society could survive without it.

Sexual - Sexual relations between spouses allows for a closer bond, leading to the stability of the family structure.

Economic - A family provides all its members with the necessities e.g food and shelter.

Educational - A family helps to transmit the norms and values to their children (Primary socialisation).

Reproduction - A family ensures the reproduction of humans which allows for continuation of society.

What does Talcott Parsons suggest about the family?

Parsons believe that the family serves 2 functions: primary socialisation of children where individuals internalise norms and values and the stabilisation of adult personalities (SOAP) which provides security and support from wider society, preventing stress overwhelming the individual and threaten stability of society.

What are Parsons Biologically determined roles?

Parsons argues that gender roles in the family are based on biological differences. Instrumental role - Played by the man who offers leadership and discipline. Expressive role - Played by the woman who is nurturing and caring.

What is Functional Differentiation?

Parsons suggests the family is losing functions to the state as industrial societies have become increasingly specialised with the need for institutions to carry out specific functions for example children are now educated in schools, not family.

How is the family a Warm bath?

Parsons argues that the family is a warm bath, as it helps relieve stress from work and provides a warm and stable environment.

What does Ronald Fletcher suggest about the family?

With the growth of the welfare state the family is gaining functions. Education - Parents are expected to support their child’s school experience through attending parents evening, helping with homework and paying for school trips.

Health - Parents are expected to ensure their children have regular health check-ups and are engaged in healthy lifestyles.

Economic - The family may not work together but they have economic responsibilities to provide for the family unit's needs and ensure financial stability.

What are the strengths of the Functionalist view of the family?

+ Promotes stability. + Shows the importance of primary socialisation. + Explains societal problems via the breakup of the nuclear family.

What are the weaknesses of the Functionalist view of the family?

- Parsons view of the family roles of husband and wife is outdated. - They ignore dysfunctional aspects of family ( e.g conflict and domestic abuse). - Ignores other family types.

What is the Marxist view of the family?

The Marxist view of the family suggest families serve the interests of capitalism by socialising children to accept inequality and reinforcing capitalist ideology.

What does Friedrich Engels suggest about the family?

Engels suggests that the nuclear family is a social construct, developed to serve the interests of private property and capitalism, where women are often oppressed and utilised for reproduction, ensuring the inheritance of wealth.

Marxists see the inheritance of wealth as a way for the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) to maintain their economic power and control over the proletariat (the working class).

Women were regarded as glorified prostitutes as they provide sex in return for economic security from their husbands and are thus trapped in a cycle of dependency.

What is Monogamy?

One partner at a time, was the most effective way of passing on wealth to tehir heirs.

What does Louis Althusser suggest about the family?

Althusser suggests that the family acts as an ideological state apparatus, promoting and reproducing the dominant ideology of capitalism through institutions such as religion, the media and education.

For example, pocket money in exchange for tasks is a way children learn about the economy, exploitation and accept that they must be good workers in the future.

As well as this, the Repressive state apparatus maintains the rule of the bourgeoisie by force and coercion through laws and state control.

What does Eli Zaretsky’s suggest about the family?

Zaretsky sees the family as a uni of consumption, built on the exploitation of hoewives and children who are targeted in advertising.

For example. children who do not have the latest gadgets are mocked and stigmatised.

Similar to Parson’s warm bath theory, Zaretsky believes that the family provides a safe haven for men when they come home from being alienated and exploited at work.

What does David Cooper suggest about the family?

Families prepare the individual for their induction into the role they play in an exploitative society.

As well as this, Cooper highlights the dark side of the family where abuse and coercion may occur which reinforces social inequalities.

What are the strengths of the Marxist view of the family?

+ Shows how inequality is passed on through the family and other institutions. + Some sociologists, like Cooper, highlight the dark side of the family, which sociologists, like Functionalists, ignore. + Shows hoe exploitation i.e housework offers free labour to capitalism.

What are the weaknesses of the Marxist view of the family?

- Engels view that men marry and have children in order to solely pass on their wealth is an outdated view, which ignores other reasons for getting married. - Feminists criticise that the family mainly benefit men rather than capitalism. - Marxism ignores the benefits that a family gives to its members such as adequately socialising children and providing emotional stability. - Focuses on the nuclear family and dismisses other family types.

What does New right suggest about the family?

Arose as a reaction against the changing values in the 1960s and 70s, where the nuclear family was under threat.

They agree with Functionalists that the nuclear family is the ideal type and that gender roles are biologically natural.

However, unlike Functionalists they do not view state intervention in a positive light, instead this has created a dependency culture.

What does Dennis and Erdos suggest about the family?

They are concerned about the rising trend in fatherless families and argue that this has negative impacts on children's development, producing boys who become anti social and undisciplined, and predisposed to poorer life chances and inadequate socialisation. Furthermore, lone parenthood has been on the increase since the 60s and has been caused by change in laws (resulting in higher divorce rate), the influence of feminism (where women are now independent and career minded) and greater sexual freedom.

What does Charles Murray suggest about the family?

Murray argues that the rise of Lone parent families has resulted in welfare dependency and economic disadvantages.

Absent fathers means there is a lack of male role models for boys who are likely to be inadequately socialised and face higher risks of criminal behavior and educational failure.

He advocates for traditional family structures where couples marry before having children to reduce the risk of this and thus producing stability.

What problems in society does the breakup of the nuclear family cause?

Teenage pregnancies.

Child poverty .

Juvenile delinquency.

Educational underachievement.

What are the strengths of New right view of the family?

+ Like functionalists, they link the breakup of the nuclear family to social problems. + Promotes stability. + Connects the family to the wider society. + Nuclear family is most effective for socialisation.

What are the weaknesses of the New right view of the family?

- Gender roles are sexist and help maintain patriarchy. - Family is constantly changing due to societal changes. - Had problems before the 1970s. - 1 good parent is better than 2 bad ones. - Victim blaming. - Should women stay in an unhappy relationship?

What do Feminists suggest about the family?

Feminists argue that the nuclear family reinforces traditional gender inequalities and patriarchy.

They have done this by socialising girls to accept less important roles and encourage boys to believe they are in control, as well as socialising women into accepting the housewife role.

What do Marxist feminists suggest about the family?

Marxists feminists argue the main cause of women’s oppression in the family is not men, but capitalism itself which benefits from women’s unpaid domestic labour.

This exploitation only continues into the next generation as children in the family are socialised into accepting capitalist values and norms.

Feminist Fran Ansley (1972) asserts that women act as "takers of shit," absorbing the frustrations of their husbands who are oppressed in the capitalist system.

Furthermore Ansley attacks, Functionalist, Parsons view of the family that the wife plays an expressive role in the family, arguing instead that this role is a form of social control.

What do Radical feminists suggest about the family?

Radical feminists suggest that the family is a key institution of patriarchy, where they are made to feel inferior as a result of the traditional gender roles.

Radical feminist Laura Purdy (1997) proposes that women are disadvantaged due to childcare responsibilities and the expectation that they will have children, and the way to escape this is for women to stop having children, a baby strike, only then will women’s demands for equality be taken seriously by society.

Moreover, Germaine Greer argues that the family structure leaves women forced into submissive roles, limiting their freedom and independence. The solution for this is political lesbianism and separatism, supporting the liberation of women.

Other feminists, like Shulamith Firestone, focus on how women are flawed by their biology. This is known as “the curse of eve”. Firestone advocates that women use artificial technology such as test tube babies and artificial wombs to escape the shackles of patriarchy.

What do Liberal feminists suggest about the family?

Liberal feminists look at barriers to women’s progression such as attitudes and stereotypes, which create a glass ceiling that restricts opportunities for women in the family and workplace.

They aim to create equal opportunities, change in political, economic and social systems to enable women to achieve equality.

Feminist Anne Oakley argues that the problem is gender socialisation, where since industrialisation, women were confined to the home leading to a division of labour. Oakley used the concept Dual burden to explain how women take on the responsibility of paid work and their housewife role highlighting the ongoing inequality in the home.

Furthermore, Jennifer Somerville suggests we are seeing a march of progress towards gender equality, with improvements in women's rights and the rise of dual earner households.

What do Difference feminists suggest about the family?

Difference feminists argue that women's experiences of oppression in the family vary based on factors such as race, class, and sexual orientation.

They emphasise that the traditional feminist perspective often overlooks these differences, focusing on the experiences of white, middle class women.

Feminist Bell Hooks supports this view arguing that some women suffer a matrix of domination, that is the interplay of gender, class and ethnicity which creates distinct forms of oppression for women in different social contexts.

What are the strengths of the Feminist view of the family?

+ Highlights the role of women. + Highlights gender inequalities. + Exposes the dark side of the family. + Increases awareness to the government and wider society. + Explores social construction of gender

What are the weaknesses of the Feminist view of the family?

- Can women achieve equality solely through legal change? - Women are still oppressed? - Do all women find the family and society oppressive? - Is separatism possible or desirable? -What about teh rise in female breadwinners?

What do Postmodernism suggest about the family?

Postmodernists argue that family structures are diverse and fluid, with greater individualism where people can now choose what is best for them not guided by tradition.

They emphasise that traditional family roles and patterns have declined, leading to new types of family such as single-parent households, cohabitation, and same-sex partnerships.

What does Haraven suggest about the family?

Haraven’s concept of Life course Analysis examines an individual’s life history and investigates how eraly events have influenced future decisions such as marriage and divorce.

What does Beck suggest about the family?

Beck suggests that we now live in a Risk society, where people no longer make long term plans as society is constantly changing and life is now unpredictable.

As well as this he argues we have seen a rise in the negotiated family, these familoies do not conform to the traditional family norms, but vary according to the wishes and expectations of their members.

What does Giddens suggest about the family?

Giddens suggests marriage is “no longer till death do us part” instead of monogamy we now see a serial monogamy.

Plastic sexuality - Increased contraception means relationships are now shaped according to the individuals needs and wants.

Confluent love - Love based on trust, emotional intimacy and mutual understanding. Pure relationships -

What are the strengths of the Postmodernism view of the family?

+ A lot of evidence to support this view. + Shows how families meet individuals needs not societies. + New labour recognises these new family types in social policy. + Highlights the importance of life course and decision making.

What are the weaknesses of the Postmodernism view of the family?

- Many still hold traditional views of the family. - Does everyone have a choice i.e those in poverty. - Their views have helped undermine the family.

What is the Personal Life Perspective on the family?

The personal life perspective on the family is essentially an Interactionist perspective and criticises structural perspectives such as Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism for assuming the nuclear family is the dominant type of family.

The theory focuses on diverse family structures and the importance of personal connections beyond biological ties.

Takes a micro approach, focuses on individuals and small groups and their interactions.

Takes an action approach, society is shaped and influenced by individuals.

What does Carol Smart (2007) suggest about the family?

Carol Smart (2007) recognises how families and households have moved away from traditional ideology and have become increasingly unique.

She suggests their are 5 bonds between people:

Memory which reveals feelings and priorities, Biography which allows a sense of autonomy, Embeddedness where each individual is embedded in a web of relationships that shape their identity (symbols, rituals or traditions) Relationality is the idea that you are a web of relations to other people e,g sister, daughter, friend, Imaginary, there are 2 reals of family life, the families we “live with” and the family we “live by”.

What are Fictive relatives?

Vanessa May’s concept of Fictive relatives refer to individuals who are considered as family members even though they are not biologically related.

It is increasingly common for people to form close relationships with their friends and pets and to regard these people (or animals) as part of their family.

This is supported by research from Tiper (2011) where she found in her study of children’s interpretations of what counted as “family”, that 90% saw pets as part of their family.

Therefore, this supports the Connected thesis that the definition of family is becoming more fluid and socially constructed.

What is the importance of family history in influencing identities?

Family history plays a crucial role in shaping individuals' identities by providing a sense of belonging and continuity.

Misztal (2003) claims that through an individual’s life course, their memories from childhood tend to shape their decisions and identities.

These memories could be shaped by many things such as parents divorcing, having a pet or losing relatives.

What are the strengths of Personal Life thesis (Connected thesis) on the family?

+ Helps us to understand how people construct and define their relationships as ‘family rather than imposing traditional sociological definitions of the family from the outside. + It still sees intimate relationships as performing the important function of providing us with a sense of belonging and relatedness. +

What are the weaknesses of Personal Life thesis (Connected thesis) on the family?

- Argues to exaggerate the importance of certain types of personal relationships traditional marriage and cohabiting nuclear families provide more financial support to children than friends and more emotional support than pets. - Critics argue that we haven’t actually got much free will to make choices and we are still constrained by our gender, class and ethnicity. Unlike Feminism and Marxism, the theory may overlook how power and inequality shape personal relationships and family dynamics

Gender roles, Domestic Division of Labour & Power relationships

How has the housewife role historically developed?

Prior to the rise of industrialisation the family was a unit of production with greater equality between genders in the home. However, industrialisation led to the separation of paid work from the home. Women were initially part of the labour force, but they were gradually excluded from the workplace as a result of the Factory Act and eventually confined to the home with the sole responsibility for housework and childcare while men became the sole breadwinner. This enforced women’s subordination and economic dependence on men. The functionalist Parsons claims that theses are biological roles based on physical traits and abilities, while others would argue that the housewife role is socially constructed. The 20th century saw an increase in the number of women working, as a result of feminism and women’s changing status in society and the workplace. However, the housewife role is still seen as women’s primary role, where they face low paid jobs that are often the extension of the housewife role such as childcare, secretarial work or nursing.

What are Gender roles?

Patterns of behaviour that are expected of individuals of either sex. These patterns are influenced by societies definitions of how each biological sex should act, creating a difference between men and women.

What is Domestic Labour?

Unpaid housework including cooking, cleaning and childcare.

What is Domestic Divisions of Labour?

The division of role, responsibilities and tasks within the home, often influenced by societies views on gender roles.

What are Conjugal roles?

These are the roles played by men and women in marriage or cohabiting relationships.

What are joint conjugal roles?

Joint conjugal roles involve a more equal distribution of responsibilities within the home, with both partners sharing domestic chores.

What are Segregated conjugal roles?

Segregated conjugal roles refers to the distinct and separate roles taken on by each partner in a relationship, typically characterised by traditional divisions of labour where men take on the instrumental role and women the expressive role.

What are the cultural explanations for gender division of labour?

Gender division in domestic work is due to different gender roles and Societal expectations. Until gender roles & Gender role socialisation changes, there will not be any equality in the domestic division of labour. In this view, the division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms and values that shape gender roles in our culture.

What are the Material explanations for gender division of labour?

Gender division in domestic work is due to different incomes. As women earn less than men it means its economically rational for women to do more housework while men spend more time earning money, there will not be any equality in the domestic division of labour until pay differences are removed.

Which theorists suggest relationships are becoming more equal?

Bott - social networks. Young and Wilmott - The symmetrical family. Gershuny - Lagged adaptation. Silver and Schor - Death of the housewife role.

Which theorists suggest relationships are unequal?

Oakley - Dual burden. Duncombe and Marsden - Triple shift. Edgell - Decision making

What does Parsons suggest about conjugal roles?

According to the Functionalist, Parsons, conjugal roles are necessary for the traditional nuclear family to function effectively. He promotes, that the husband takes on the instrumental role of providing for the family financially, while the wife takes on the expressive role of meeting the family’s emotional needs and nurturing children. Parsons argues that men and women are ‘naturally’ suited to these roles and that the domestic division of labour is based on biological differences.

Who criticises Parsons view on conjugal roles?

Feminist theorists argue that Parsons' view reinforces traditional gender roles, ignoring the way women suffer from the sexual division of labour and the pressures of unpaid domestic work. Therefore, this reduces their economic power and reinforces patriarchy in the family. Parson's view of Instrumental and expressive roles is outdated, it may have held some value in the 1950’s when women married and became full time housewives. However, this is not the case today as women now participate more equally in the workforce and share domestic responsibilities.

What does Bott suggest about conjugal roles?

Bott proposed the concepts of joint and segregated conjugal roles, suggesting that in joint roles couples have an equal distribution of responsibilities within the home, while in segregated roles there is a clear division of labour between husband and wife. Bott found that the most influential factor in determining whether a couple had joint or segregated conjugal roles was their social networks of friends. Couples who had more close-knit networks tended to have segregated conjugal roles, while lose knit couples were more likely to have joint conjugal roles. This social network also acted as a form of social control ensuring that couples did not drift away from traditional gender roles through teasing (e.g. a man they chose to cook or bake could be teased by other males as this activity is not part of the traditional male role).

What are the criticisms of Bott’s view on conjugal roles?

Botts work lacks generalisability as her sample was relatively small and only based on 20 families, living in the London area. Therefore her research is not representative to the wider population and cannot be applied to all families.

What does Young and Willmott suggest about conjugal roles?

Young and Willmott propose that joint conjugal roles have replaced segregated conjugal roles in modern families. Willmott and Young carried out structured, telephone interviews with working-class, nuclear families living in Bethnal Green in the 1950s and again in the 1970s. In the 1950s, most families had traditional segregated conjugal roles. Men were the breadwinners and played little part in home life and spent their leisure time with workmates in pubs, while Women were full-time housewives with sole responsibility for housework and childcare. However, in the 1970s There had been a march of progress, where family life had improved over the years, becoming more egalitarian and democratic. This is known as the symmetrical family.

What is a symmetrical family?

Symmetrical families refer to those that are equally balanced and flexible and both partners share both the instrumental and expressive roles. Young and Willmott support the ‘march of progress view that families are becoming less patriarchal and more symmetrical.

What are the main features of a symmetrical family according to Young and Willmott?

1) Nuclear instead of extended. 2) Home-centred or ‘privatised’, where leisure time is shared at home together instead of separately, and the family socialise less with people outside of the immediate nuclear family. 3) Based on joint conjugal roles, where couples share domestic tasks such as housework and childcare. (Willmott and Young claimed that 72% of husbands now ‘helped in the house’)

What is the Emergence of a New man?

The greater equality within the family has also led to a change in men. As Women have taken on more of the traditional male roles and with men doing more “women’s work” (e.g. housework and childcare), it has been suggested that this has led to the development of the “New man”. This involves a man that is in touch with hiwsown and families emotional needs and committed to doing his share of housework and childcare.

What are the reasons for the rise of a symmetrical family?

Willmott and Young argue that the rise of the symmetrical family is due to the major social changes which have occurred in the last century such as: Changes in women’s position, Geographical mobility, New technology and labour-saving devices, Higher standards of living, Stratified Diffusion – Changes in family life and norms, what the middle class have today the working class want tomorrow i.e. home ownership, household appliances.

What criticisms are there of Young and Willmott’s view on conjugal roles?

Feminist, Oakley disagrees with Willmott & Young's evidence of symmetrical families. Of married men, 72% claimed to ‘help their partner in the home in some way other than washing up at least once a week’. Oakley points out, this could mean vacuuming once a week, tucking the children into bed or making their own breakfasts. This does not necessarily reflect an equal division of labour. Furthermore Young and Willmot’s research lacks generalisability considering their limited sample of 12 households in Bethnal Green, therefore unrepresentative of the whole of the UK.

What does Oakley suggest about conjugal roles?

Oakley suggests that the division of labour within families is not equal, as conjugal roles are still segregated. She is critical of Young and Willmott’s symmetrical family and the emergence of a new man, claiming in her research that women have acquired a dual burden of paid work and unpaid housework. In her study in 1974, Oakley interviewed 40 women, half of which were m/c and half of which were w/c. Her sample consisted of those aged between 20-30 years old, living in London and had one child or more under the age of five. She found that m/c husbands gave more help than w/c husbands, both helping more with childcare than housework. Men’s involvement was due to financial necessity (women had to work part time) rather than a desire for greater involvement in family responsibilities. She also found that husbands saw housework and childcare as “her work” rather than a joint chore. She observed that mothers are generally responsible for the welfare and security of the children, while fathers engage in more enjoyable childcare tasks. This indicates…

What criticism is there of Oakley’s view on conjugal roles?

Oakley’s research lacked generalisability due to her limited sample consisting of 40 women in London, which may not represent diverse family structures across the UK. In addition, The study was conducted in the early 1970s, during a time when traditional gender roles were more fixed. Since then, family life and gender roles have changed significantly, with a rise in dual-earner households. Therefore, the findings may not reflect modern conjugal roles. However, Oakley used detailed interviews, which allowed her to gather rich, in-depth insights into women’s personal experiences of domestic life. Furthermore, Her findings directly contradicted Young and Willmott’s claim of the ‘symmetrical family’, revealing that only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in housework, and 25% in childcare. This significantly helped sociologists understand that supposed progress toward equality in the home was overstated.

What do Duncombe and Marsden suggest about the family?

Duncombe and Marsden suggest that in family life, women are not only expected to do a double shift of both housework and paid work, but also work a triple shift that includes emotional work such as a cushion for men’s frustration.

What does Jonathon Gershuny suggest about conjugal roles?

Gershuny’s research (1994) found that wives who worked full-time did less domestic work than those who did not go to work or worked part-time and claimed that this was leading to a more equal division of labour in the home, where men take on more household chores. However, even though men are now doing more housework, they still tend to take responsibility for different tasks such as DIY and gardening. Gershuny concludes that conjugal roles will become more equal over time but that men will adapt to changes in society and the family more slowly than women. This is a process he called lagged adaptation.

What does Silver and Schor suggest about conjugal roles?

Conjugal roles are not yet joint, but will become so in the future. Silver and Schor stress 2 major developments in reducing the burden of housework on women: Housework has become commercialised due to the increase in domestic appliances where the traditional housewife role has become easier and less skilled, so it can enable men to do more and women to do less. If women are in paid work it will enable them to buy more appliances to make housework even easier. This concept is known as the Death of the housewife and suggests that society is progressing towards equality.

What do Feminists suggest about women’s domestic labour?

Marxist feminist argues Capitalism benefits from women's domestic labour as they provide free work to help maintain the family unit. Radical feminist argue this promotes patriarchy as women are left to do a majority of the housework, men benefit from their free labour as women have less time to do paid work which restricts their economic power in the family and limits their ability to contribute to decision making.

What does Edgell suggest about conjugal roles?

The domestic division of labour is not the only factor affecting the level of equality within families. Decision-making and control of finances also affects the power relationship. Edgell (1980) interviewed 38 professional couples on questions on who made decisions in the home. He found women controlled decision making in food purchased children’s clothes, but serious decisions such as moving to a new house and buying a new car were controlled by men. One important factor in decision making is economic power, as men traditionally earn more money they had more authority. However, recent studies have also highlighted that in some cases when women earn more than their partner, they will let their husband make most of the decisions so their masculinity is not threatened.

What statistics show the inequality of domestic labour?

Statistics from the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2016 show that women engage in an average of 60% more unpaid work than men. 'Unpaid work' includes childcare, cleaning and cooking.