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Old Regime
The social and political system of France in the 1770s, where people were divided into three estates.
bolivar
a wealthy venezuelan creole and key general in the south american wars of independence. Known as the libterator, he led revolutions in several countries, which formed gran colombia, volivia is named in his honor
Estate
The three large social classes in France under the Old Regime: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and everyone else including the bourgeoisie, urban workers, and peasants (Third Estate).
Louis XVI
The king of France during the French Revolution, known for his indecisive leadership and extravagant spending.
Marie Antoinette
The queen of France during the French Revolution, infamous for her lavish lifestyle and unpopularity.
Estates-General
An assembly of representatives from all three estates, called by Louis XVI in 1789 to approve new taxes on the nobility.
National Assembly
Formed by the Third Estate delegates in 1789 with the goal of making changes in the government and passing laws in the name of the French people.
Tennis Court Oath
A pledge taken by the Third Estate delegates in June 1789, vowing to remain assembled until they had created a new constitution for France.
Great Fear
A wave of panic that swept through France in the summer of 1789, leading to peasant uprisings and the destruction of many manor houses.
Bastille
A Paris prison stormed by a mob on July 14, 1789, which became a symbolic act of revolution for the French people.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
A statement of revolutionary ideals adopted by the National Assembly in August 1789, declaring equality for all men.
Legislative Assembly
A new legislative body created by the Constitution of 1791, with the power to create laws and approve or reject declarations of war.
Émigrés
Nobles and others who fled France during the Revolution, hoping to undo the changes and restore the Old Regime.
Sans-culottes
Parisian workers and small shopkeepers who wanted more radical changes during the Revolution.
Jacobins
A radical political organization during the French Revolution, notable members included Jean-Paul Marat and Maximilien Robespierre.
Guillotine
A machine used for executions during the French Revolution, considered a more humane method of execution.
Maximilien Robespierre
A Jacobin leader who rose to power in 1793 and ruled France during the Reign of Terror.
Reign of Terror
A period from 1793 to 1794 marked by mass executions of those considered enemies of the Revolution.
Napoleon Bonaparte
A French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution.
Coup d'état
A sudden, often violent, seizure of power from a government, such as Napoleon's in 1799.
Plebiscite
A direct vote by the electorate on a particular proposal, used by Napoleon to legitimize his rule.
Lycée
A state-funded secondary school in France established by Napoleon to train government officials.
Concordat
An agreement between the papacy and a secular government, such as the one signed by Napoleon with Pope Pius VII.
Napoleonic Code
The French civil code established under Napoleon in 1804, standardizing laws but also limiting liberties.
Battle of Trafalgar
A naval battle in 1805 that ensured British naval supremacy and forced Napoleon to abandon plans to invade Britain.
Blockade
A naval operation to prevent ships or goods from entering or leaving a controlled port or region.
Continental System
A large-scale economic blockade of Britain implemented by Napoleon to disrupt trade.
Guerrilla
A member of a small independent group engaging in irregular fighting against larger forces.
Peninsular War
A military conflict fought in the Iberian Peninsula against Napoleon's empire.
Scorched-earth policy
A military strategy that involves destroying resources useful to the enemy while retreating.
Waterloo
The battle on June 18, 1815, where Napoleon was decisively defeated, marking the end of his rule.
Hundred Days
The period of Napoleon's return from exile to his final defeat.
Congress of Vienna
A series of meetings in 1814-1815 aimed at establishing peace and stability in Europe post-Napoleon.
Klemens von Metternich
The Austrian foreign minister who played a key role in shaping the Congress of Vienna.
Balance of Power
A political situation aiming to prevent any one nation from dominating Europe.
Legitimacy
The principle that monarchs deposed by Napoleon should be restored to power.
Holy Alliance
An agreement aiming to base international relations on Christian principles among Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
Concert of Europe
A series of alliances to support one another against revolutions in Europe.
Peninsulares
People born in Spain, at the top of Spanish-American society, allowed to hold high office.
Creoles
Spaniards born in Latin America, who could not hold top political positions but controlled land and wealth.
Mestizos
People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, ranked below peninsulares and creoles.
Mulattos
People of mixed European and African ancestry, ranked below mestizos.
Simón Bolívar
A Venezuelan creole known as 'the Liberator' for leading independence revolutions in South America.
José de San Martín
A general who led independence movements in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
Miguel Hidalgo
An educated priest who called for rebellion against Spain, known as 'the cry of Dolores.'
José María Morelos
A priest who led the Mexican revolution after Hidalgo's defeat.
Toussaint L’Ouverture
Formerly enslaved leader of the Haitian Revolution who freed all enslaved people in Haiti.
Conservative
Wealthy property owners and nobility arguing to protect traditional monarchies.
Liberal
Middle-class leaders wanting more power to elected parliaments, restricting voting to educated landowners.
Radical
People favoring drastic change to extend democracy to all people.
Nationalism
The belief that greatest loyalty should be to a nation sharing common culture.
Nation-state
A nation with its own independent government representing its territory and way of life.
The Balkans
A region that includes parts of Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and the former Yugoslavia.
Louis-Napoleon
Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, elected president of France in 1848.
Alexander II
Czar who moved Russia toward modernization after losing the Crimean War.
Russification
A policy of forcing Russian culture on all ethnic groups in the empire.
Camillo di Cavour
A cunning statesman and prime minister of Sardinia, pivotal in Italian unification.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Visionary soldier who led Italian nationalists to capture Sicily.
Junker
Strongly conservative members of Prussia’s wealthy landowning class.
Otto von Bismarck
Prime minister of Prussia known for his realpolitik approach.
Realpolitik
German term for tough power politics with no idealism.
Kaiser
The German emperor.
Romanticism
An art movement emphasizing emotion and nature.
Realism
An art movement aiming to depict life as it is.
Impressionism
An art movement focused on capturing an artist's impression of a moment.
